AP Gov Foundations of American Democracy

Amendment Process

• Proposal:

  • Congress: Two-thirds of both the House and the Senate vote for a change, or

  • States: Two-thirds of state legislatures call a special national convention to propose changes (never used so far).

• Ratification:

  • State legislatures: Three-fourths (38 of 50 today) approve, or

  • State conventions: Three-fourths of states hold special conventions to approve (used once, for the 21st Amendment).

George Washington

The first President of the United States and commander of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. At the Constitutional Convention, he presided as a neutral leader, lending credibility to the new Constitution. His presidency set precedents for executive authority, including the two-term limit tradition.

Thomas Jefferson

Primary author of the Declaration of Independence, third U.S. president, and key advocate for natural rights and limited government. He opposed strong centralized authority and favored a more decentralized, agrarian republic.

Alexander Hamilton

First Secretary of the Treasury and a leading Federalist. He argued for a strong national government, centralized financial system (including a national bank), and broad interpretation of the Constitution through implied powers.

Benjamin Franklin

Founding Father and elder statesman at the Constitutional Convention, known for his diplomacy and compromise-seeking. He helped negotiate the Great Compromise and symbolized unity among diverse colonies.

John Adams

Second U.S. president and strong proponent of republicanism. Though not directly at the Constitutional Convention, his writings and leadership shaped early debates on executive power and balanced government.

James Madison

“Father of the Constitution” and main author of the Bill of Rights. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers and designed the Virginia Plan, which heavily influenced the Constitution’s structure of checks and balances.

Centralized Republic

A republic where political authority is concentrated in the national government, rather than spread among the states. Federalists supported this model to prevent disunity and inefficiency.

Decentralized Republic

A government where most authority lies with the states rather than the national government. Anti-Federalists favored this model, fearing tyranny under centralized power.

Electoral College

• The constitutional mechanism for electing the president. Each state’s electors equal its number of Representatives + Senators. It reflects a compromise between direct popular vote and congressional selection.

Factions

Political groups, often based on shared economic interests or ideology. In Federalist No. 10, Madison argued that factions are inevitable but best controlled in a large republic with many competing interests.

Policy-Making

The process through which government institutions (Congress, president, courts, bureaucracy) create, implement, and enforce laws and regulations.

Stakeholders

Individuals or groups with an interest in government decisions, including citizens, interest groups, corporations, and public officials.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically granted to Congress in the Constitution (e.g., taxing, declaring war, regulating commerce).

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both the federal and state governments (e.g., taxation, building roads, creating courts).

Exclusive Powers

Powers only the federal government can exercise (e.g., coining money, regulating interstate commerce, foreign treaties).

Reserved Powers

Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved for the states (10th Amendment).

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly listed but assumed under the Necessary and Proper Clause (e.g., creating a national bank).

Mandates (Funded/Unfunded)

Federal requirements imposed on states. Funded mandates include federal money to support implementation; unfunded mandates require states to comply without federal funding.

Federal Revenue Sharing

Federal funds distributed to state and local governments with few restrictions on how the money is spent. Popular in the 1970s but phased out in the 1980s.

Block Grants

Federal grants given for broad purposes (e.g., education, healthcare) with more flexibility for states

Categorical Grants

Federal funds for specific purposes, tightly regulated with conditions attached (e.g., Medicaid, highway funds).

Grants-in-Aid

General term for money provided by the federal government to state/local governments, including both block and categorical grants.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):

Maryland tried to tax the national bank; the Supreme Court said Congress could create a bank (implied powers from the Necessary & Proper Clause) and that states can’t tax it because the Constitution makes federal law supreme.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

A student brought a gun to school, and Congress tried to ban it using the Commerce Clause; the Court said carrying a gun in a school zone isn’t “interstate commerce,” so Congress had gone too far — this limited federal power and protected state authority.