ANSC 212: Organ Systems and Physiology

Vocabulary flashcards covering organ systems, muscle physiology, blood components, energy partitioning, carcass grading, and regulatory body systems from ANSC 212.

Actin

The protein that forms thin filaments in skeletal muscle, responsible for cross striations.

Myosin

The protein that forms thick filaments in skeletal muscle, responsible for cross striations.

What are muscles mostly make of

70% water , though also full of proteins

Where is energy lost from net energy total?

Fecal development

Urine and methane excretion

Heat regulation

Metabolism

Digestion

3 types of muscle tissues

Skeletal , Smooth , Cardiac

Sliding Filament Mechanism

The mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction where actin and myosin proteins slide together and overlap without shrinking.

Extensor Muscle

A muscle that causes a limb or body part to straighten by increasing the angle between its members.

Flexor Muscle

A muscle that causes a limb or body part to bend by decreasing the angle between bones at a joint.

Abductor Muscle

A muscle that causes a part of the body to move away from the central body plane.

Adductor Muscle

A muscle that causes a part of the body to move toward the central body plane.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntarily controlled muscle

Characterized by striated cross sections → these are caused by myosin and action fibres

• attached to bones (usually 2 bones) via tendons

Function of skeletal muscle

Body movement/ work

Maintain body temperature

Maintain posture

Stabilize joints

Smooth Muscle

Involuntary, non-striated muscle composed of spindle-shaped cells with a single nucleus, arranged in diagonal parallel filaments

• surrounds hollow internal organs (ex. Blood vessels, reproductive system , )

Features of smooth muscle

Contracts more slowly and with less strength than other muscles

• more stretch compared to other muscle types

Diagonal arrangement of parallel filaments of actin and myosin

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary, striated muscle tissue found exclusively in the heart under autonomic nervous control.

Marbling

Intramuscular fat dispersed within meat that provides tenderness and flavor, where higher amounts indicate superior carcass quality.

Beef Carcass Yield Grade

A 1 to 5 scale grading system for youthful cattle estimating the percentage of saleable retail carcass based on external fat depth, ribeye area, hot carcass weight, and kidney, pelvic, and heart fat (KPH).

What makes up the circulatory system

Heart, arteries , capillaries , veins and lymphatic system

Function of circulatory system

• transport nutrients and waste products , gases (O2 and CO2) water and hormones

• distributes and dissipates heat

→ all through the movement of blood

Pulmonary Circulation

The pathway of blood flow from the heart to the lungs

• heart pumps deoxygenated blood through pulmonary artery to lungs

• blood is oxygenated in capillaries of lungs

• oxygenated blood is returned to heart via pulmonary vein

Systemic Circulation

The pathway of blood flow from heart to body

• oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart through the aorta to body tissues

• thin walled capillaries allow nutrients and oxygen to enter tissues, waste products and CO2 leave

• returned deoxygenated to the heart via the vena cava.

Artery

A high-pressure blood vessel without valves that carries bright red, usually oxygenated blood away from the heart.

Vein

A low-pressure blood vessel containing valves to prevent backflow that carries dull red or blue, usually non-oxygenated blood toward the heart.

what is unique about chicken hearts

aorta arches to the right instead of left like most mammalian hearts

Atria

The receiving chambers of the heart that collect blood returning from the body or lungs.

Ventricles

The muscular pumping chambers of the heart that force blood into the pulmonary artery or aorta.

Functions of blood

Carries → nutrients, waste product, O2, CO2, hormones

Transports → heat from tissues to body surface

Contains → buffers such as bicarbonate to maintain pH balance.

Osmotic control

Clotting mechanism

Disease control

Erythrocyte

A red blood cell formed in red bone marrow containing hemoglobin to bind oxygen

*one of most prevalent cells in body

• susceptible to nitrate poisoning

• non-nucleated in mammals and nucleated in birds.

Leukocytes

white blood cells involved in immune system

• formed in red bone marrow and lymph glands (spleen, thymus etc.)

• not confined to blood, can be found in other tissues

• typical count = 1-10 thousand / uL

Hemoglobin

An iron and globulin protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen, enabling blood to absorb $60$ times more oxygen than water.

Methemoglobin

An altered form of hemoglobin produced when ruminant bacteria convert ingested plant nitrates into nitrites, impairing oxygen transport and causing suffocation.

Plasma

The fluid portion of unclotted blood containing about $90\%$ water and $10\%$ dissolved solids, collected using an anticoagulant.

solids include: inorganic salts, antibodies, hormones, vitamins, enzymes, glucose, fats and proteins

• can indicate health and nutritional status

Serum

The fluid portion remaining after blood has clotted, equal to plasma minus fibrinogen ($\text{Serum} = \text{Plasma} - \text{Fibrinogen}$).

Blood components and percentages

50-60% plasma or serum

40-50% red blood cells

smaller amounts of platelets and white blood cells

Buffy Coat

The thin white intermediate layer composed of white blood cells and platelets formed when blood is centrifuged.

Neutrophil and monocytes

A granulocytic white blood cell attracted to infection sites that ingests bacteria via phagocytosis.

Eosinophil

A white blood cell involved in controlling allergic reactions and parasitic infections.

Basophil

A white blood cell that plays a role in allergic and inflammatory responses by releasing granules containing histamine.

Lymphocyte

An agranulocytic white blood cell responsible for adaptive immunity, divided into T lymphocytes (cellular immunity attacking infected body cells) and B lymphocytes (humoral immunity makes antibodies→ passed down from mother).

How does total white blood cell count change

increased amount during bacterial infection

decreased amount during virus (damages WBC production )

Thrombocyte

A blood platelet that attaches to blood vessel injuries and releases fibrinogen (protein ) to form a clotting plug.

• sticky, form a plug at injury site to prevent excessive blood loss

Function of the Respiratory system

deliver oxygen to lungs to be exchanged with CO2

→ breath in oxygen and exhale CO2

• O2 is absorbed by lungs and transported by blood to tissues

Inspiration

The active inflow of air into the lungs resulting from negative pressure created by contraction of the diaphragm.

Expiration

The outflow of air from the lungs resulting from the relaxation of the diaphragm.

how to chicken lungs differ to mammalian lungs ?

• very rigid, do not expand

• contain parabronchi on lungs instead of alveoli

• unidirectional flow of air into the lungs allow for continuous oxygen supply

• contain air sacs that move air

• no diaphragm

• highly sensitive to air quality, dust, ammonia and airborne pathogens

unique lung design help to lighten body weight to aid in flight

Parabronchi

The rigid gas-exchange tubule structures in avian lungs that allow continuous unidirectional airflow without alveoli.

Air Sacs

Bellows-like structures in poultry that inflate and deflate to drive continuous, unidirectional airflow through rigid lungs.

function of urinary system

produce, store and transport urine

Structures involved in the urinary system

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethera

Nephron

The basic functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood,

Consisting of the three main parts: glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, and tubule system.

How the kidney works

blood enters kidney from the renal artery and moves into the Glomerulus under high pressure (ultrafiltration takes place)

most of liquid is forced out of glomerulus into Bowmans capsule

• glucose reabsorbed in proximal convoluted tubule

• water reabsorbed in loop of henle

• salts reabsorbed distal convoluted tubule

Whatever isn’t reabsorbed is formed into urine (urea, excess salt and water ) and sent to bladder

Urine

produced continuously by kidneys, and stored in bladder

released from body via urethra when bladder is full

How do chickens urinary systems differ

Chickens lack a bladder and urethra so cannot store it

it is sent to the cloaca where it is mixed with faces before being excreted as uric acid

Functions of kidneys

excretion of waste products (protein metabolism, urea , uric acid)

regulation of water balance

maintenance of pH

regulate osmotic pressure

regulate electrolyte levels (Na, K , Mg)

recycling of water

Glomerulus

A high-pressure capillary network inside the nephron where ultra-filtration forces fluid out of the blood into Bowman's capsule.

Loop of Henle

The U-shaped portion of the nephron tubule specialized for water reabsorption.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A hormone that regulates water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys.

→ alcohol blocks ADH production making you need to pee more

Aldosterone

A steroid hormone that maintains electrolyte balance by controlling sodium ($\text{Na}$) and potassium ($\text{K}$) levels in the kidneys.

What does the Central Nervous System contain

brain and spinal cord

what does the peripheral nervous system contain

nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

*form communication between CNS and the rest of body

Two main parts:

• Somatic : voluntary muscle movement and relays information from ears, eyes and skin

• Autonomic : controls involuntary bodily functions and glands (such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate)

Functions of Nervous system

coordinates all physical activities

basic pathway of specialized senses and sensory information

helps body be aware of and adjust to various changes in internal or external environment

nerve cells (carry information from one part of body to another)

Neuron

A specialized nerve cell consisting of branching dendrites, a soma (cell body), and a single long axon covered by a protective myelin sheath.

Pathway of signals through nervous system

Receptor / sensory stimuli → dendrites → impulse → axon → synapse → dendrite of another neuron or effector organ → target cell → response

Synapse

The functional junction where an axon terminal connects and communicates with a dendrite of another neuron or effector cell.

Cerebrum

The largest region of the brain (soft grey part)

• controlling decision-making, voluntary muscle movement, sensory processing,

• involved in reasoning, learning, judgment and memory.

Cerebellum

The brain region responsible for coordinating muscular activity during eating and locomotion.

damage to Cerebellum results in incoordination

Thalamus

The central information relay station of the brain that processes all sensory inputs except smell and

• regulates sleep, wakefulness, learning memory and consciousness.

What parts are contained in the brain stem?

Midbrain, Pons , and Medulla Oblongata

Brain Stem

The lower part of brain connecting to spinal cord

• relays information

• helps maintain homeostasis (heart rate, breathing rate , body temperature , and sleep )

Midbrain

eye movement

Pons

facial movement , hearing and balance

Medulla Oblongata

Regulates breathing, swallowing , blood pressure, heart rhythms

Spinal Cord

connects brain and peripheral nervous system

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves

What makes up the endocrine system ?

Several ductless glands located all over the body

• hypothalamus

• pituitary

• thyroid

• parathyroid

• adrenal

• pineal

• pancreas

• ovaries

• testes

Function of Endocrine system

Affect nearly every bodily process via Hormones (tiny chemical messengers)

• metabolism

• growth and development

• emotions and mood

• fertility and sexual function

• sleep

• blood pressure

Hypothalamus

The brain structure that acts as the body's control center for homeostasis and serves as the primary link between the nervous and endocrine systems.

• receives messages from PNS : react to messages and keep body in homeostasis

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland that secretes trophic hormones to direct other glands

Tells other glands to release hormones related to growth, metabolism, reproduction, lactation, and stress responses.

Thyroid Gland

A butterfly-shaped endocrine gland in the front of the neck that secretes thyroxine ($T_4$) and triiodohydronine ($T_3$) to regulate metabolism.

Parathyroid Glands

Four tiny endocrine glands that regulate calcium levels throughout the heart, kidneys, bones, and nervous system.

Adrenal Gland

2 glands, one on top of each kidney

Regulates metabolism, blood pressure, sexual development and stress response

*adrenal → produces ADRENALINE

Pineal Gland

impacts sleep cycle via releasing MELATONIN

Pancreas

Plays a role in Endocrine and Digestive systems

Releases INSULIN , glucagon (stored version of glucose) , somatostatin

Ovaries and Testes

Release sex hormones required for sexual development and maturity

Ovaries = estrogen , progesterone

Testes = testosterone

What makes up the Immune System

Lymph nodes

Spleen

tonsils and adenoids

thymus

bone marrow

skin , mucous membranes

stomach and bowel → microbiota and pH changes will indicate pathogens

How can microbial invade the body ?

Intestine , respiratory tract and skin

Innate Immunity

The immediate, hard-wired defense system consisting of physical barriers like skin and mucosa

• non-specific inflammatory responses.

Adaptive Immunity

The long-lasting immune defense mediated by lymphocytes and memory cells that generates antigen-specific antibody responses.

example. vaccines fosters this type of immunity via introducing non lethal form of pathogens to build immunity