EHAP World War I & Russian Revolution

Period 4(1914-Present)

Wilhelm II

last German empire/King of Prussia(r. 1888-1918) ~ an impulsive/bombastic leader with bold/tactless actions in international affairs

~ position in Triple Alliance

• dismissed Otto von Bismarck(1890) ~ dislike his friendly policy of alliances → aggressive/militaristic foreign policy →

  • Refusal to renew nonaggression pact w Russia → Dual Alliance of France/Russia

  • → European arms race & Anglo-German naval buildup

  • caused Moroccan Crisis-es(attempt to understand relation w Britain →😔

  • Wilhelm’s blank check(**promise of alliance to Austria-Hungary in war)

Triple Alliance

the alliance of Austria-Hungary, Germany, & Italy(until neutrality 1914~ broken nonaggression pact with Austria-Hungary)

• (cause) - formation of Dual Alliance of France & Russia

Anglo-German rivalry

Wilhelm’s aggressive foreign policy → decline of friendly Prussian & Great Britain relations → rivalry

• increased commercial competition in 1890s

• Germany’s pursuit of oversea colonies threatened Britain interests/oversea colonies

• Germany’s decision to challenge Britain’s naval supremacy by expanding battle fleet

(Impact) - new Great Britain alliances formed against Prussia

• ex: Japan, France(Anglo-French Entente of 1904)

First Moroccan Crisis

an international crisis between France & Germany over the status of Morocco

(cause) - Wilhelm II(1905)declared that Morocco(where France had colonial interest) was independent/sovereign state ~ (attempt to test strength of Germany & Britain alliance)

• Wilhelm II’s surprise visit to Tangier on Moroccan coast on a white stallion to declare Moroccan independence support

• Germany demanded to receive same trading rights as France

(result) - Convention to solve international crisis

• No benefit to Germany

• Diplomatic revolution - (Britain, US, France, & Russia) believed Germany was a potential threat

• Closer relations between Britain & France

Triple Entente

the alliance of Great Britain, France, & Russia prior to and during WWI

(cause)- foundation of alliance - Anglo-Russian Agreement

Second Moroccan Crisis

“Agadir Crisis” (1911) French troops went to Morocco to put down an anti colonial rebellion ←Germany sent a gunboat to Moroccan port in response

(result) - resolved by international agreements

• Allowed France to claim Morocco - “permanent protectorate”

• Gave Germany territorial concession in the Congo

• Furthered decreased relations between Triple Entente/Germany

Naval Buildup

Germany’s decision to expand its navy with a large/expensive fleet of “big-gun” battleships = dreadnoughts

• Germany - belief of its legitimate right of a grand world power/national power

• Britain - military challenge

  • spent the “People’s Budget” on battleships

  • Britain closer relations with France & Russia

(Impact) Increased division of European Great Powers

Militarism

Belief/desire of a government & nation that the country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests → “arms race”

• ex: Germany’s powerful/aggressive military played large roles in state affairs/ordinary people’s lives

• politicians - reliance on generals/military experts to shape public policy

• All Great Powers →built up military & mobilization plans

• Universal Conscription(Germany, France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia) - Volunteer Army(Britain) → young men exposed to military culture/discipline

(Impact) - Great Powers underestimated the destruction of modern weapons & war

Nationalism

(“popular nationalism”) belief that one’s country was superior to all other → “arms race” & struggle over colonies

• underestimated the destruction/causalities of war ~ belief that “war was test of strength that’ll lead to national unity & renewal”

• Anti-War sentiment → belief of “betrayal of country in time of need”

• Popular commitment to national interests → weakened groups → international groups/consequences

• Justification by political leaders - used militarism/nationalism to postpone dealing with internal social/political conflicts & belief that "victory would preserve elites’ position & rally support/unity for nation”

assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

(June 28, 1914) Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne(Archduke Franz Ferdinand) was assassinated by a Serbian revolution during a state visit to the Basian capital of Sarajevo by a member of a radical group ~ Bosnian Gavrillo Princip

(Impact) - assassination led Europe into WWI

Gavrillo Princip

Bosian Serbian nationalism & Black Hand member who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria(June 28, 1914)

• believed assassination would led to great unity among South Slavic people/liberation of Yugoslavs from Austro-Hungarian rule

(Impact) - led to development of alliances/treaties among European powers → WWI

Black Hand

a secret Serbian nationalist organization - formed in early 1900s to promote Serbian nationalism/creation of a Greater Serbia through use of terrorism/political violence

• “Unification or Death” motto

• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand planned/carried out by Black Hand

First and Second Balkan Wars

(cause) Western powers successfully forced Ottoman Empire to give up its European territories →

Balkan League - Serbs, Bulgarians, & Albanians →sought to consolidate their independent nation-states

• independent Serbia wanted to build state with all ethnic Serbs

  →openly hostile to Austria-Hungary/Ottoman Empire(who had Serbian minorities)

• Austria(1908) annexed territories of Bosina and Herzgovina into Austria to block Serbian expansion

First Balkan War - (1912)Serbia joined Greece & Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman Empire → quarrels with Bulgaria over aftermath of victory/territory

Second Balkan War - (1913) Bulgaria attacked its former allies(Serbia) →Austria intervened & forced Serbia to give up Albania

(Result) Increased demands for freedom from Austria-Hungary by Balkan nationalists from success against Ottomans

July Crisis

a five-week period instigated by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand through intense diplomatic activity of the Austria-Hungary’s leaders’ conclusion that Serbia was involved in the assassination/deserved punishment

→Austria-Hungary sent ultimatum that would violate Serbian sovereignty →Serbs didn’t follow & Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia(July 23) as an attempt against rising nationalism within the borders

“blank check”

Bethmann-Hollweg(German chancellor) & Wilhelm II promised Austria-Hungary that Germany would “faithfully” stand by its ally in case of war -(“unconditional support”)

• Encouraged Vienna’s prowar faction to deal with/be against Serbia

• Russia(Serbia’s traditional ally/backed by France) encouraged Serbs to refuse Austrian demands

(Result) - Increased tensions & outbreak of WWI

Schlieffen Plan

failed German plan that called for quick/lightning attack through neutral Belgium(quickest way to Paris) →”quick defeat” of France before attacking Russia

• Battle of Marne (German defeat)

(Result) - led to Great Britain’s declaration of war on Germany

• used as Triple Entente propaganda - “Rape of Belgium”

total war

a war in which distinctions between soldiers on the battlefield & civilians at home are blurred

• massive government intervention in society & economy → ensure support for war effort

• long/deadly battles fought with modern weapons(produced by effects of Industrial Revolution)

• ex: German general Erich Ludendorff in German invasion of Belgium(1914) led France to Western Front & Russia on Eastern Front/Ottoman Empire borders

• National economies worked for war effort -

  • Government revoked civil liberties

  • Civilians lost lives as armies moved through their cities

  • Middle East, Africa, East Asia, & U.S. brought into the conflict

stalemate

the period where neither French or German powers could gain an advantage on the Western Front

→prolonged deadlock with great causalities

Battle of Marne

(September 6, 1914) French attacked a gap in German line for 3 days & French gov demanded the use of all Paris taxis to go to the front

→ fall back of Germans → “stalled armies”

• both sides dug trenches to protect themselves from artillery/machine gunfire

• (November 1914) line of 400 miles of defensive positions along the Western Front -

  (from Belgian coast →northern France →Swiss frontier)

trench warfare

a type of fighting used in WWI behind rows of trenches/barbed wire

• large cost of lives

• Minimal gains in territory

• Terrible conditions - “rotation of enlisted men”, mud, vermin, bad food, trench foot

• Useless against modern warfare weapons

machine guns

Automatic firearms capable of firing large numbers of rounds in quick succession

Increased firepower of military forces

Widespread use in WWI behind rows- mass casualties, stalemate on Western Front, changed traditional battle tactics

tanks

Heavily armoured combat vechicles that are designed to traverse difficult terrian/break through enemy line

• withstand artillery

• Developed/used by British in Battle of Somme(1916)

• Forced adaptation of military tactics

poisonous gas

Chemical weapons designed to incapacitate and kill enemy soldiers through inhalation

chlorine/mustard gas

gas masks

changed military tactics

Central Powers

a coalition of countries led by Austria-Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire(1914), & Bulgaria(aided Austria-Hungary to invade/occupy Serbia)

• opposition to Allied Powers in WWI

• Motivation - to secure territorial expansion/maintain control through a unified military/political effort '

• Formed in response to Allied Powers

• Ottoman Empire’s entrance → war in the Middle East(Armenian Genocide)

Battle of the Somme

British offensive(1916) in northern France that started with heavy artillery on German lines for 7 days

• British attempt to ruin German defense in trenches

• Germans fled to dugouts - lack of food/water/sleep

  → reemerge use machine guns (British casualties- loss some troop morale/home public opinion)

• Britain pushed back Germans 7 miles - insignificant battle showed stalemate

• Showed need to change battle tactics in order to end stalemate & WWI

WWI Poetry

poems written by soldiers of the daily activities and trauma from war

• outburst of cultural creation/ collection

• Vivid imagery / emotional language

• Captured war, battle experiences, emotions, reality of warfare

• Britain trench poets - John McCrae & Wilfred Owen

  Impact - shift in war attitude as means for national unity/“getting stronger” → honest war representation with mass casualties & destruction

Italian side-switching

Italy switched sides from being Central Powers to declare neutrality in 1914 after Austria-Hungary’s violation of non-aggression pact by starting war

• Italy joined Triple Entente after promises of Austria-Hungary territory & the changing tide of the war(1915)

  Impact - Mass casualties/ destruction/ no success in Italian- Austrian front (600,00 Italian lives)

Armenian genocide

(1915-18) Mass deportation of Armenian citizens by the Ottoman Empire government due to Armenians welcoming Russian armies as liberators

(cause) WWI fighting between Russians & Ottomans in the Caucasus

• Armenians discriminated & faced pogroms in Ottoman Empire

• 1 million Armenians died from Turkish militias forced Armenian refugees to cross Anatolian hinterland - (murder/starvation/disease)

• early example of modern ethnic cleansing → controversy

• deliberate/systematic destruction of Armenian population by Ottoman Empire during WWI

Battle of Gallipoli

(1915) British attempt & failure to take the Dardanelles/Constantinople from the Ottoman Turks in the Gallipoli Peninsula

• British force immediately pinned down(on beaches)

  →10-month Battle of 300,000 killed Ottomans & 265,000 Brits (killed/wounded/missing)

• British Motive - attempt to secure sea route to Russia & kick Russia out of war

• Mustafa Kemal - prominent Ottoman commander during Battle of Gallipoli

War in the Ottoman Empire & East Asia

Hussein ibn-Ali - Arab ruler of Ottomans land under the Ottoman Turks- negotiated with Britain for an independent postwar Arab kingdom to rebel against the Ottoman Turks with British T.E Lawerence

• “king of the Arabs”

• Guerrilla war against Turks → collapse of Ottoman Empire

• No fulfilled British promise for independent Arab kingdom to rebel

  East Asia - Japan declared war on Germany(1914)

• - seized Germany - Pacific & East Asian colonies - expanded influence over China

• Support of colonial subjects to Allied Powers - helped fight in corps(ANZAC)

Lusitania

(May 1915) a German submarine/U-Boat sank the British passenger liner - “the Lusitania” & claimed 1,198 lives(including 128 citizens)

• Britain & France naval blockade on Germany’s neutral cargo ship

  →retaliation with attacks on Entente’s supply ship with U-Boat

(Impact) - Woodrow Wilson turn public opinion against Germany

• shifted American public opinion

• Germany halted nonrestrictive submarine campaign - in attempt to avoid war with U.S.

Zimmerman Note

unrestricted submarine warfare

type of naval warfare used in WWI where submarines sunk vessels(military/civilian ships) without warning

• (1917) Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare(after stopping after Lusitania)

  → attempt to weaken Britain

(Impact) - United States declared war on Germany

• uneven balance of allies against the Central Powers

War Raw Materials Board

created by industrialists - Walter Rathenau

• convinced German government to set up program to ration & distribute various goods

• food rationed

• substitutes fro war supplies

• failure to heavily tax war profits of private firms

  → deficit financing, infllation, growth of black market, & re-emergence of class conflict

Auxiliary Service Law

a requirement forced by German military leaders to the Reichstag after defeat in battles

• required all males between 17-60 to work in jobs toward the war effort

• women also worked some(ex: factory/mines/steel mills)

  (Impact) - increased war production

changing role of women during war

“lost generation”

The mass death of the young men who served as soldiers ~ including the large numbers of men who have PTSD(mental illness) & disabilities.

Easter Rising

Czar Nicholas II

The Duma

Rasputin

February Revolution

Provisional Government

Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ & Soldiers’ Deputies

Vladimir Lenin

Leninism

• small elite should govern/create a Communist state → need strong human leadership

• Marxist Socialism - based on Russia’s current conditions

• need violent revolution to destroy capitalism & reassert power

• Communist revolution possible in agrarian Russia with right conditions

Bolsheviks

Political party - led by Lenin

(followed Leninism - small elite to create Communist state)

• translates to “majority” group ~ used by propaganda

• split apart from other Marxist Socialists → “Mensheviks Party”

• used violent/radical acts & uprisings to assert power

• used October revolution with Leon Trotsky to assert control/power over the Provisional Government

→ successfully installing a dictatorial socialist regime in Russia

Mensheviks

“minority group”

• split away in Marxist Socialists(Russian Social Democratic Labor Party) → Bolsheviks

• opposition to Bolsheviks

• believed in radical revolution but without a “small elite creating Communist state”

mass membership - “revisionist”

Peace, Land, & Bread

Lenin’s propaganda/radical slogans used in attempt to gain popular support of Russia

• no more war in Russia (immediate armistice)

• attempts to gain back land in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - land reform(accept peasant takeover of lords)

• greater food & rights/equality to the people

promised progressive reforms

• against cooperation of Provisional Government

• “All Power to the Soviets”

Leon Trotsky

Leader of the Red Army

follower of Lenin

Military commissar guide in October Revolution - got support of the Petrograd Soviets against the Provisional Gov

October revolution

Leon Trotsky, Petrograd Soviets, Bolsheviks overtake Provisional Government in Petrograd, Russia

by arresting government members

establishment of Lenin & Bolshevik socialist state on Nov 7 (past - Oct 25- 1917)

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Peace treaty signed in March 1918 between the Central Powers and Russia that ended Russian participation in WW1 & ceded territories containing a third of the Russian Empire’s population to the Central Powers

• refused by Lenin & Bolsheviks at first & accepted when the Germans resumed war(1918)

• Lenin’s Motive - absolute power for the Bolsheviks & to establish a Communist State

• Impact - organization of the White Army

The Whites

a military group formed from old army’s officers in opposition & hatred toward the Bolsheviks & Reds

• consisted of diverse social classes

• monarchist, liberals, anti-Bolshevik socialists ~ division of political ideologies

• (southern Russia, Ukraine, Siberia, west of Petrograd)

• strong attacks on the borders defeated by Red Army

  (Motive) - sought to preserve tsarist Russia

Russian Civil War

Multi-party conflict(1917-1922) between White & Red Army

• (cause)- White Army(18 self-proclaimed regional gov) challenged Lenin & Bolsheviks

• Failed counter-revolution due to:

  • Trotsky(commissar)’s leadership of better organized army - (ex: strict discipline, draft, & loyalty or death)

  • Foreign military intervention - attracted tsarist army officers to Bolsheviks’ side & lack of continued aid/resources from Western Allies(stop spread of Communism))

  • Red Army’s large control of central Russia, Moscow, & Petrograd

  • White Army’s division of political ideologies & weak attacks to borders

  • War Communism ~”centralized”

(1920) Bolshevik retake of territory ceded to Germany through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• Belarus, Ukraine

• halted by Jozef Pulsudski’s troops in Polish territory ~ helped halt Bolshevik’s attempts to spread Communism farther into central Europe

Red Army

military force of the Bolsheviks/Soviet Union - led by Lenin & Trotsky(commissar) ~ fought for the Communist government against the White Army

• established in 1918 - consolidate power after October Revolution & defend Bolsheviks/government

• Leon Trotsky - “People’s Commissar for War” (discipline, loyalty or death, use of tsarist officers)

• strategy of mobilization & centralized command

• Defeat of the Whites - 1920

War Communism

The harsh system of an application of centralized state controls during the Russian Civil War

Bolsheviks →

• seized grain from peasants(to feed cities)

• introduction of rationing

• nationalized all banks & industry ~ outlaws private enterprise

• required strict workplace discipline

(Impact) - decline in economic activity & stable supply of resources(troops/artillery) in the Red Army

Cheka

Secret police of Lenin & the Bolsheviks ~ suppressed counter-revolutionary forces

“Red Terror” - (1918-20) secret police established as central tool of Communist government

• imprisonment & execution without trial

• “victims” of all social class (ex: clergymen, aristocrats, wealth Russian bourgeoisie, Red Army deserters)

  • secret execution of Tsar Nicholas, Alexandra, their child

Armistice

a formal - “slowly negotiated” agreement between the Central and Allied Powers to stop fighting & negotiate peace → Germany surrendered to Allied Powers

• went into effect on November 11, 1918 ~ (war not “formally” over)

• (Cause) - “Spring Offensive of 1918” - failed attempt by Germans to have all-out attack on France(1918)

  → Germany = exhausted resources/troops, revolts/rebelling Germans(demonstrations for peace)

• Proclamation of German Weimar Republic(November 9) → agreement to armistice

Impact - led to signing of Treaty of Versailles

Democratic Successor States*

States that emerged from the former empire, Austria Hungary & eventually failed due to significant political, economic, and diplomatic crises & seized control by conservative nationalists

created through the Treaty of Saint-German-en-Laye (1919)→ (Austria-Hungary → Republic of Austria) & (new states)

• desire to establish nation with democratic government

• ethnic tension due to redrawn territory borders ~ new conflicting minority populations(Hungarian minority in Czechoslovakia)

• ex: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia

• P. C. H. Y.

  Hungary → Marxist Republic

  Serbs → control of Western Balkans through territorial expansion

  Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes → renamed Yugoslavia(1929)

Weimar Republic

a democratic government that led Germany(15 years) ~ established by the Social Democratic Party(SDP) & liberals

(Cause) - Germany’s defeat in WWI →revolution(1918) →(Weimar Republic -**liberal provisional gov)

(Goal) - political democracy, civil liberties, gradual elimination of democracy

(Downfall & Result) - “Spartacist Uprising”failed uprising attempt(1919)in Berlin to seize government by Radical Communists - (Karl Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg) due to Free Corps militias

→Unhappy with Weimar Republic = (No political stability)

Opposition by right-wing Nazi(National Socialist German Workers) Party & spread of anti-government myth by Nazi for Germany defeat in WW1

Blamed for death of Karl Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg on government & repression in Bavaria

Treaty of Versailles

1919 peace settlement that officially ended war between Germany & Allied Powers ~ WWI

• Harsh settlement terms with Germany(one of several treaties) in 1919 Paris Peace Conference

• (Reparations to Germany) - (1)Demilitarize army -(limited military capacity to 100,000 men, build no military fortifications in Rhineland, & accept temporary occupation in Rhineland)

  (2)Give up territories & all of its colonies(ex: Alsace-Lorraine to France, parts of Prussia, German Danzig under Polish border)

  (3)Pay monetary reparations to Allied powers

  (4)war guilt clause - Agree to bear responsibility for WWI

Germany’s (African & Asian)colonies →France, Great Britain, & Japan (through League of Nation mandates)

(Impact) - resentment from the German population - due to poor economic/political conditions(ex: hyperinflation, effects on national identities through redrawn borders)

→ eventual rise of Nazi Party in Germany

Fourteen Points

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s 1918 peace proposal

(Motive) - aimed to address war causes & achieve lasting peace

• called for open diplomacy

• a reduction in armament

• freedom of commerce/trade

• the establishment of the League of Nations

• national self-determination(ex: Balkans-not overseas colonies)

(Impact) - controversial not liked by all Allied powers & influenced Paris Peace Conference(1919) through the Treaty of Versailles

Woodrow Wilson

28th U.S. President - served from (1913-1921) ~ led US in WWI(1917)

• Fourteen Points

• advocacy for League of Nations in 14 Points

• Motive = spread democracy & “champion of democratic international cooperation” & Christian mortality

League of Nations

A permanent international organization established during 1919 Paris Peace Conference as a part of the Treaty of Versailles - designed to protect member states from aggression & avert future wars

• struggled to enforce its resolutions due to lack of personal military force, major powers(ex: US, Soviet Union), inability to address aggressive actions of member states, & authority/legitimacy

• dissolved in 1946 after WWII →created path for establishment of United Nations

self-determination

Notion that peoples should be able to choose their own national governments through democratic majority-rule elections & live free from outside interference in nation-states with clearly defined borders

• led to the creation of several new nation-states in Eastern Europe & Middle East after WWI

• not intended for self-determination of colonized people/colonies

(Impact) - laid path for eventual decolonization movements & increase in ideas of independence from European powers

“Big Three”

United States, Great Britain, & France = controlled the Pairs Peace Conference(1919)

• Exclusion of Germany, Austria-Hungary, & Russia

• Limited role of Italy & ignored concerns of Middle East, Africa, & East Asia representatives

• (Decision of Germany’s Reparations = Argument)-

  • Clemenceau(France)wanted Germany to pay(revenge, economic retribution, security) (1)Desire of buffer state between France & Germany, (2)Demilitarization, (3)Reparation payments ~ support by Lloyd(Britain) but less harsh

    ~ not supported by Wilson

  • (FINAL DECISION - GERMANY) - France compromise

    (1)French military occupation in Rhineland ~ not followed France’s “buffer state” idea

    (2)Formal defensive alliance with Great Britain & US

    (3)Treaty of Versailles Terms

• (Argument) establishment of Wilson’s League of Nations despite no support from Britain(Lloyd George) & France(Georges Clemenceau) prime ministers

war guilt clause

Article in the Treaty of Versailles that declared that Germany(with Austria) was solely responsible for the war & had to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by the fighting

(Impact) - financial burden/insult to German national pride & protests of the Weimar Republic/German gov

Sykes-Picot Agreement

(1916)Secret Treaty made during WWI by Britain & France without the involvement of Ottoman leaders that divided the Ottoman territories

• Partitioned Ottoman-controlled areas of Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine

→ British & France administered regions

Mark Sykes(Britain)

Francois Georges Picot(France)

mandate system

Plan to allow Britain & France to administer former Ottoman territories - put into place after the end of WWI

~ former Ottoman territories would be placed under the “tutelage” of European authorities until they could stand alone(NOT intended by France & Britain)

• France - mandate - modern-day Lebanon, Syria, majority of southern Turkey

• Britain - mandate - Palestine, Transjordan, & Iraq

(Impact) - Critics labeled it colonialism & resentment from Arab nationalists

Balfour Declaration

1917 British statement written by Arthur Balfour that declared British support of a “National Home for the Jewish People”(later Israel) in Palestine

• support of Zionist idea

• appeal to German, Austrian, US Jews → helping the British war effort & maintain British control of Suez canal

(Impact) - great resentment from Arabs

General Syrian Congress

(1919)Group of Arab nationalist that united to call for political independence(*2nd time) which failed → proclamation of Syria as independent kingdom

(cause) - failed effort to secure autonomy in the Middle East in 1919 Paris Peace Conference & limited political independence in Middle East(only kingdom of Hejaz granted independence)

• Western Reaction -

  • French attack Syria & take Damascus(1920)

    → Arab government fled → French takeover

  • British established control in Iraq

(Impact) - led to the incorporation of the Balfour Declaration, replacement of Ottoman rule by mandate system(from League of Nations)

• occupation of modern-day Turkey by Britain & France(including Italy & Greece(attempt to build modern Greek empire))

• deadly anti-imperial riots/violent conflict between Arabs & Jews

Mustafa Kemal

(1881-1938)secular nationalist & prominent general in successful Turkish defeat of British in Battle of Gallipoli ~ led the Turkish National Movement

• overthrew the sultan & refused to acknowledge Allied power actions(dismemberment of country)

• gained steady resistance even with great losses → Great Britain & Greece sued for peace

• Treaty of Lausanne(1923): recognition of territorial integrity of Turkey ~ abolished unequal treaties/capitulations imposed by European powers

  • included an agreement for “ethnic cleansing” in Lausanne

• established a republic - elected president - created a one-party system due to (his belief that Turkey should modernize/secularize along Western lines)

  (including radical religion & cultural reforms - limit the place of religion/religious leaders in daily affair through separation of church & state ~ model of western Europe)

  (promulgated law codes inspired by European models, establish secular public school system, greater rights for women)

(Result) Turkey’s path to join the European Union(EU) as official member

“ethnic cleansing” in Lausanne

Treaty of Lausanne → “population exchange” Agreement for “ethnic cleansing” - forced Greek Orthodox Catholics to leave the Turkish majority lands to Greece & Muslims moved to Turkish mainland

(result) - “humanitarian disaster” - few Muslims wanted to move(transit camps) - harsh conditions, rampant looting, physical abuse

(impact) - destroyed multicultural ethnic state

• model for further ethnic cleansing examples (ex: exchange of Germans & Slavs after WWII/exchange of Hindus & Muslims after Indian independence(1947))

1917 Influenza

20 million people died in the worldwide influenza epidemic after WWI

~ greater spread due to WWI’s troop movements & crowded urban living conditions

(Impact) - greater advancements in public health/medicine (gov intervention in health crises)

(ex: quarantine measures, use of masks, advancements in virology/epidemiology)

“shell shock”

Now termed Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD)

~ suffered by many soldiers

• was poorly understood by physicians and policymakers

• Some soldiers received medical treatment & some accused of cowardice - denied veterans’ beneifits

veterans with disabilities

Around 10 million soldiers came home physically disfigured/mutilated

• attempt to take care of them/their families - rarely enough money for the government to adequately fund pensions & job-training programs

• expensive/uncomfortable/awkward artifical limbs

• some employers refused to hire disabled workers → forced to beg on the streets

ex: German case - struggle of Weimar Republic to take care of 10% of German citizens who were direct victims of WWI