Evolution
change in genetic makeup and features of population over time
Ideas of Buffon
new species change from original ancestor over time to thrive in new locations
Hutton's (and Lyell's) Uniformitarianism
Earth shaped by gradual geographic changes over long periods of time
Cuvier's Catastrophism
earth shaped by violent catastrophes that only current species survived
Lamarck's Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
individual acquire traits through use or disuse; successful traits are then passed onto offspring
Darwin's (and Wallace's) Natural Selection
individuals are born with different traits- those with successful traits survive and pass traits to offspring.
Do organisms acquire successful traits intentionally?
They are acquired from random mutations, not intentionally.
Is an organism's trait successful in any environment?
Successful traits are suited to certain environments and can be unsuccessful if conditions change.
Compare Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and Natural Selection
Inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarck)- parent acquires trait so it can survive and reproduce
Natural Selection (Darwin (and Wallace))- parent born with successful trait- survives and reproduces
Artificial Selection
choosing and breeding offspring for desirable traits
5 ways to study evolution
-fossils
-embryology
-molecules and genetics
-comparative anatomy
-biogeography
Fossils
slight structural differences between early species and current ones show changes in traits over time
Comparative Anatomy
similar body parts across different species can indicate a common ancestor
Homologous Structures
similar internal structures, different functions; indicates a common ancestor
Vestigial Structures
small, non dysfunctional body structures
Analogous Structures
different internal structures, similar functions; no common ancestor
Embryology
comparing development between species can identify a common ancestor
Biogeography
location of current species can show where separation from common ancestor and adaptation to new area occurred.
Molecules and Genetics
slight differences in protein and DNA can trace ancestry between species
Species
population independently of other populations
Speciation
formation of new species after two populations are isolated and then diverge
Allopatric Speciation
populations are isolated geographically
Sympatric Speciation
populations are isolated, even in some locations
Prezygotic isolation barriers
prevent reproduction and fertilization
Postzygotic isolation barriers
prevent viable, fertile offspring
Hybrid
offspring of parents of different species- often sterile
Extinction
death of all members of a species- evolution naturally turns over species
gene pool, determine # of alleles if given population
total alleles of gene in population (population x 2)
allele frequency, determine # if given # of alleles and population
% of an allele out of the total in gene pool (# of A or a/ gene pool)
5 requirements to meet Hardy-Weinberg principle
-no mutations
-no migration in/out (no gene flow)
-population big enough to avoid genetic drift
-random mating
-no natural selection
5 ways to fail to meet Hardy-Weinberg principle
-Mutations
-Migration of individuals
-Genetic drift due to small population
-Nonrandom mating
-Natural selection
Mutation
change in organism's genetic material- introduces new alleles population (increase diversity)
Gene Flow
movement of alleles between populations
Genetic Drift
allele frequency change due to chance- plays off of inheriting a trait
Bottleneck Effect
population drastically reduced in short period of time- losing many alleles - permanent loss of diversity
Founder Effect
small group leaves home to form own isolated population
Nonrandom Mating
select mates to reproduce based on preference
Sexual Selection (Identify above based on how it changes population, example)
natural selection that attracts mate to reproduce successfully
Which gender often has the elaborate adaptation? Which gender chooses the partner?
Males often have elaborate adaptations to compete for females. Females select for good genes or help with offspring.
Directional Selection (Identify above based on how it changes population, bell curve, example)
one extreme trait favored, the environment selects against the others, moves population in one direction
Diversifying (Disruptive) Selection (Identify above based on how it changes population, bell curve, example)
both extreme traits are favored over an intermediate trait, which may divide the population into 2 species over time
Stabilizing Selection (Identify above based on how it changes population, bell curve, example)
intermediate trait is favored over extremes,in stable environments, decreases variety in population
Exponential Growth
accelerating increase in population size, more births than deaths; J Curve
Boom and Bust Cycle
rapid growth followed by sudden decline in population size
Logistic Growth
rapid growth, then population stabilizes at carrying capacity; S shaped curve
Carrying Capacity
highest population that does not damage ecosystem
Competition
organisms attempt to use same, limited resources, both harmed
Predation
organism eats another organism- one harmed
Parasitism
organism lives in or on another organism. harming it, symbiotic relationship
Commensalism
organism lives in or on another organism, not harming it, symbiotic relationship
Mutualism
organism lives in or on another, both benefit, symbiotic relationship
Primary Succession
colonization of newly formed land (rock and lava) by organisms
Secondary Succession
colonization of disturbed community by organisms
Producers
make own food
Decomposers
eat detritus (organism remnants such as waste, dead tissues)
Consumers
eat other organisms
Tertiary Consumers
eat secondary consumers
Secondary Consumers
eat primary consumers
Primary Consumers
eat producers
Carnivores
eat consumers
Herbivores
eat producers
Detrivores
eat producers and consumers detritus
Describe 10% law in relation to the Food Pyramid
10% of energy from food source is available to consumer, rest is used or lost as heat
Hydrologic Cycle Reservoirs and processes
reservoirs- atmosphere, oceans, freshwater, groundwater\
processes- evaporation, precipitation, seepage, runoff, streamflow
Carbon cycle reservoirs and processes
Reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, soil, fossil fuels
Processes: fire, respiration, photosynthesis, uptake by consumers, decomposition, runoff
Nitrogen cycle reservoirs and processes
Reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, freshwater, soil
Processes: lightning, denitrification, nitrogen-fixation, uptake by producers and consumers, decomposition, runoff
Phosphorus cycle reservoirs and processes
Reservoirs: rock, soil, oceans, freshwater
Processes: runoff, uptake by producers, decomposition, rock formation
Biome
ecosystem characterized by plant community
Tropical Rain Forest
Location: Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia
Vegetation: broadleaf evergreen trees(broadleaf: tree with leaves that have broad blades; evergreen: leaves are dropped and regrown year-round rather than losing all leaves at once in a seasonal pattern)
Conditions: 68-93o F year-round, 50-200 inches rain/year; rainy and dry seasons; warm and moist
Other: 1/2of Earth's species live here, with fierce competition for sunlight among plants
Savanna
Location: Africa, South America, Australia
Vegetation: a few scattered trees; mostly grassland forbs(flowering plants)
Conditions: 75-84o F,4-20 inches rain/year; 8-9 months of the hot dry season
Other: most of Earth's large mammal species live here
Desert
Location: every continent
Vegetation: ranges from no plants to specialized plants adapted to conditions
Conditions: 12 inches or less rain/year; dry; lack of atmospheric water causes sharp temperature decreases at night
Chaparral
Location: North America(southwest), Europe and Africa around the Mediterranean Sea, Australia
Vegetation: a few trees; shrubs adapted to growth and replenishment from periodic fires in area
Conditions: 26-30 inches rain/year in warm winters; dry summers
Grassland (Praire)
Location: North America(midwest), Europe, Asia
Vegetation: dense grasses, with very few trees
Conditions: 10-30 inches rain/year; true summer and winter seasons(freezing can occur)
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Location: North America(eastern), Europe(western), Asia(eastern), New Zealand
Vegetation: mostly broadleaf deciduous trees(deciduous: all leaves are dropped in winter seasons due to less sunlight and frozen groundwater supply, then regrown in spring seasons when photosynthesis conditions improve)
Conditions: 30-60 inches rain/year; true summer and winter seasons(freezing can occur)
Coniferous forest (boreal forest)
Location: North America(northern), Europe(northern), Asia(northern)
Vegetation: mostly evergreen conifer trees(conifer: tree with pine needles for leaves and cones for reproduction)
Conditions: 16-40 inches rain or snow/year(mostly snow); long, cold winter seasons
Other: largest biome
Tundra
Location: North America(northern), Europe(northern), Asia(northern)
Vegetation: flowers, small plants, no trees due to permafrost in deeper soil
Conditions: 10 inches or less rain or snow/year(mostly snow); very long winter seasons at -30oF or less
Other: shortest growing season(10-12 weeks)
Biodiversity
variety of living species on biosphere
Mass Extinction
sudden loss of many species in relatively short time
5 threats to biological diversity
-habitat destruction
-overharvesting
-pollution
-invasive species
-climate change
4 characteristics of sustainable ecosystem
-diverse communities
-stable populations at carrying capacity
-efficient use and reuse of raw materials
-renewable sources of energy