Research Methodology - ALL TERMS

Bar Graph

A bar graph is a visual representation of categorical data with rectangular bars.

Box and Whisker Plot

summarizes the distribution of a dataset through five key statistics: minimum, first quartile (Q1), median (Q2), third quartile (Q3), and maximum. It can also highlight outliers.

Histogram

displays the distribution of continuous or interval data by grouping it into bins and showing how many values fall into each range

Line Graph

connects individual data points with lines to show trends over time or ordered sequences.

Outliers

data points that differ significantly from other observations in a dataset; they may result from measurement error or genuine variability

Scatterplots

shows the relationship between two continuous variables by plotting data points on an x-y axis; can reveal patterns, correlations or trends

Descriptive Statistics

summarize and describe the main features of a dataset using measures such as mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation

Inferential Statistics

analyzing data from a sample to make generalizations about a larger population

Correlation coefficient

a numerical measure (usually Pearson's r) that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Thematic analysis

a qualitative method used to identify, analyze, and interpret patterns or themes within textual or visual data.

Normal Distribution

values are spread across a dataset, in a symmetrical (bell-shaped) pattern, with most values near the mean

Skewed Distribution

values in a dataset which have long tails on one side, indicating an imbalance in data spread.

Frequency Table

organizes data by listing each unique value or category and the number of times it appears, providing a simple numerical summary of categorical or discrete quantitative data

quasi-experiment

A comparison that relies on already-existing groups (i.e., groups the experimenter did not create).

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

True Experiment

Involve random assignment to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV).

Interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents

naturalistic Observations

Watching behavior in real-world settings

controlled Observations

Watching behavior conducted in a lab or structured setting

overt Observations

Watching behavior when participants know they are being observed

covert Observations

Watching behavior when participants are unaware they are being observed

participant Observations

Researcher is involved in the activity being watched

non-participant Observations

Researcher is NOT involved in the activity being watched

Surveys aka questionnaires

structured method of collecting self-report data using fixed or scaled questions.

structured Interviews

Pre-set questions, no deviation

semi-structured Interviews

Pre-set questions + flexibility to probe

focus group Interviews

Small group discussion guided by a facilitator

Correlational studies

Examines the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Case studies

In-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event using multiple data sources (interviews, documents, observations).

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement or study—whether repeating the process yields similar results

Validity

The extent to which a tool or study accurately measures what it intends to.

Internal validity

Whether observed effects are due to the IV, not confounding variables.

external validity

The degree to which findings generalize to other contexts.

content validity

Whether a measure covers all aspects of a construct.

face validity

Whether a measure looks like it measures the construct.

construct validity

Whether the tool reflects the theoretical concept it claims to.

Generalizability

The extent to which results apply beyond the specific participants and context of the study

Researcher biases

Occurs when the researcher's expectations influence data collection or interpretation.

Participant biases

Includes demand characteristics or social desirability that affect how participants behave.

Reflexivity

ongoing process of a researcher examining their own role, assumptions, and influence throughout the research process

Transferability

extent to which findings from a qualitative study can be applied to similar contexts or groups.

Credibility

confidence that the findings of a qualitative study are accurate and believable from the perspective of participants.

Self-Selected Sampling

Participants volunteer to take part in the study, usually through advertisements, online posts, or public calls for participation

Opportunity Sampling aka Convenience Sampling

Participants are selected based on their availability and willingness to participate, typically due to proximity or convenience to the researcher.

Stratified Sampling

The target population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics (e.g., gender, age), and participants are randomly selected from each stratum proportionally

Random Sampling

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected, typically through random number generators or lottery methods.

Snowball Sampling

Existing participants recruit future participants from their social networks. Often used for hard-to-reach populations.

Confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

Extraneous variable

In an experiment, a variable other than the IV that might cause unwanted changes in the DV.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

Double-blind experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

Single-blind experiment

an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment

Repeated Measures Design

The same participants are used in all the conditions in an experiment.

Independent Measures Design

Using DIFFERENT participants in each condition of the experiment

matched pairs design

A method of assigning subjects to groups in which pairs of subjects are first matched on some characteristic and then individually assigned randomly to groups.

Counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Placebo

something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect

Positive Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which both variables either increase or decrease together

Negative Correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases

Bidirectional Ambiguity

An uncertainty in whether or not x causes y, or if they are simply correlated.

Informed Consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Protection from harm

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem, or embarrassment

Anonymity

no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person

confidentiality

the source of any data will not be revealed

Right to Withdraw

A participant's right to leave a study at any time and their ability to do so.

Deception (ethics)

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire, but not be large enough to invalidate informed consent.

Voluntary Participation

Participation whereby participants agree to take part in an experiment free from pressure or fear of negative consequences.