Traditions of Theory in Sociology

Theories Overview

a macro theory that believes society functions “like an organism” whose parts work together

functionalism

emphasis on social integration or social solidarity and emergent properties

functionalism

social institutions and organizations are evaluated in terms of their social functions

functionalism

when an element of society becomes obsolete or counter-productive, it becomes dysfunctional

functionalism

crime, poverty, and conflict are necessary components of society

functionalism

function of crime in society

• serves to demonstrate rules and set boundaries

• dictates in-group and out-group members based on behavior

“the whole is greater than the sum of the parts”

functionalism

emergent property (Durkheim)

emergent property

social behavior not tied to what individuals do but is a product of what they do

when societies become large they…

• increase in complexity

• become more differentiated

• a division of labor emerges (specialization)

• the aspects of society are integrated based upon functional interdependence

emphasis on the whole and how parts contribute to the whole

functionalism

social stability and social structure emphasized

functionalism

macro theory that emphasizes conflict and power struggles as the foundation of societies

conflict theory

emphasis on social change

conflict theory

systems of inequality, stratification, and social classes are the main topics of investigation

conflict theory

the point of theory is to provide a model for changing the world

conflict theory

what is the basis for oppression in society?

conflict theory

• class - Marx

• class, status, power - Weber

dimensions of conflict

• class

• power

• social status

• race

• gender

• access to education

• cultural and symbolic violence

• control over the body

• control over consciousness

a micro-level perspective that believes the foundation of society is language

symbolic interaction

human beings are primarily symbolic creatures; society is the exchange of meaningful symbols

humans create society, meaning, and reality through symbols

symbolic interaction

emphasis on conversation, face-to-face interaction, and the negotiation of reality

symbolic interaction

central topics in symbolic interaction

• the formation of identity

• the nature of the self

• “looking-glass self” (Charles Horton Cooley)

• self-fulfilling prophecies and the power of labeling

• the dynamics of interaction

• the “social construction of reality”

• emotions

• habits

“if situations are defined as real, they are real in their consequences”

the Thomas Theorem

symbolic interaction

all macro-level social reality - culture, social structure - is a product of interaction

symbolic interation

social life involves role-taking and role-playing

symbolic interaction

emphasizes the “rational actor”

social exchange/utilitarian theories

the basis of individual motivation is maximizing gains and minimizing losses

social exchange/utilitarian theories

social life is composed of exchanges controlled by a cost-benefit analysis (strategic interaction)

social exchange/utilitarian theories

individuals try to avoid punishment and acquire rewards

social exchange/utilitarian theories

what is exchanged?

social exchange/utilitarian theories

• money

• language

• love and friendship

• conflict

• power

• status

individual is the theoretical focus

micro perspective

social exchange/utilitarian theories

major problem: how do humans create a sense of trust?

social exchange/utilitarian theories

“free-rider” problem: how does a society prevent individuals from cheating?

• no one monitored for contributions

social exchange/utilitarian theories

how does collective action occur?

social exchange/utilitarian theories

a micro perspective largely derived from philosophy

phenomenology (Alfred Schutz)

emphasizes “lived experiences”

• subjective realities

phenomenology

how do individuals create a sense of shared reality?

• connect our lived experiences with those of others

phenomenology

tries to solve the “problem of intersubjectivity”

phenomenology

• develop strategies for convincing one another we live in a common world

• “you know?” & “you get what I mean?”

phenomenology focuses on everyday processes

• conversations

• what is talked about

• how it is talked about

• body gestures

• interpretations of situations

• conflicts of perspectives

• how individuals know what they know

• how individuals create an idea of common sense

has been translated into the sociological perspective of ethnomethodolgy

phenomenology

(research, theory; breaking everyday rules to expose them)

a (mostly) macro perspective derived from Marx’s ideas

critical theory

attempts to explain why communist revolution did not occur

critical theory

• techniques of domination and exploitation have become more sophisticated

• people more tied to consumption than production

in what ways are modern humans controlled?

critical theory

• technology

• bureaucracy

• capitalism

• consumer culture (distorts ideas of what we need vs want)

• commodities

• the creation of false needs

• the colonization of everyday experience (colonization of the lifeworld)

focus on the means of mental production (manufactured externally) over means of production

critical theory

culture is produced by a culture industry (messages & values consumed) which sells fantasies of identity, security, relationships, freedom, success, and truth

critical theory

feminist theories

• explore patriarchy

• examine how power operates in both micro and macro levels of society

• social construction of gender

• gender roles based on perceived gender differences

• critique of traditional knowledge

• calls for inclusion of women’s voices and alternative epistemologies (e.g. standpoint theory)

• critique of essentialism

• intersectionality

patriarchy

a system where men hold disproportionate power in social, political, and economic institutions

social construction of gender

gender is not biologically determined but socially constructed through norms and expectations

critique of traditional knowledge

challenge to male-dominated knowledge production in academia, history, science

standpoint theory (Dorothy Smith)

acquired, systematized knowledge has bias

either alignment or tension between dominant knowledge and lived experience

critique of essentialism

rejects the idea that all women share a universal experience

intersectionality (Kimberle Crenshaw)

highlights how various social identities (gender, race, class, sexuality, disability) intersect to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege

critical race theory

racism a normal, everyday experience for people of color, not just a result of individual prejudice.

it is deeply ingrained in societal structures, institutions, and laws.

• interest convergence

• social construction of race

• storytelling and counter-narrative

• structural and systemic racsim

interest convergence (Derrick Bell)

racial progress only occurs when it aligns with the interests of the dominant (white) group

social construction of race

race is not a biological fact but a construct that changes over time and across cultures. used to justify inequalities.

storytelling and counter-narratives

marginalized communities use self-description to challenge dominant perspectives

structural and systemic racism

racism is not just about individual bias but is embedded in laws, policies, and institutions.

racism as a social fact/emergent property.