BA 104 Module 2: Foundations of Individual Behavior

Motivation

Is the result of an interaction between the person and a certain situation

Motivation

The desire, inspiration, and willingness to execute duties and achieve objectives

Motivation

It is the process by which an individual’s efforts are energized, directed, and sustained towards attaining a goal.

Energy, Direction, Persistence

The three indicators of motivation

Energy

is a measure of intensity or drive

Direction

is supposed to be toward organizational goals

Persistence

is the exerting of effort to achieve goals

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, McGregor’s Theory X and Y, Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

What are the Early Theories of Motivation?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

emphasizes that needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higher-order needs. And that, individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs.

Lower-order needs (external)

physiological, safety

Higher-order needs (internal)

social, esteem, self-actualization.

Theory X

• assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.

• it is the negative take on the person’s nature

Theory Y

• assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.

• This one has the positive viewpoint towards the person’s nature

Theory X

• managers must closely supervise and control employees

• employees are motivated by external rewards like money and fear of punishment

• managers give orders and employees follow them

• focuses on supervision

• authoritarian, tight control, produces limited & depressed culture

Theory Y

• managers should provide a supportive environment that allows employees to use their skills and creativity

• employees are motivated by desire for self-actualization, personal growth, and the satisfaction of doing meaningful work

• managers and employees communicate openly and share ideas

• focuses on rewards & recognition

• liberating & developmental, achievement and continuous improvement is achieved by enabling, empowering, and giving responsibility

Hygiene Factors

It is what create job dissatisfaction

Salary, company policies, working conditions, relationship with peers, status, job security

6 examples of Hygiene Factors

Motivators

create or are sources of job satisfaction

Achievement, recognition, the work itself, growth, job advancement, responsibility

6 examples of Motivators

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

The theory that attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance. And, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

Three-Needs Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Reinforcement Theory, Designing Motivating Jobs, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory

What are the 6 Contemporary Theories of Motivation?

Need for achievement, need for power, need for affiliation

According to McClelland, there are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work. What are these?

Need for achievement

the drive to excel and succeed

Need for power

the need to influence the behavior of others

Need for affiliation

desire for interpersonal relationships

Three-needs theory

This motivational theory states that the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation significantly influence the behavior of an individual

Goal-setting Theory

This theory proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals.

Goal setting

increases the acceptance of goals, fosters commitment to difficult, public goals and, provides for self feedback (internal locus of control) that guides behavior and motivates performance (self efficacy).

Self-efficacy

is the belief of the person that certain things can be done by themself

Clarity, Challenge, Commitment, feedback, task complexity

What are the 5 principles of the goal-setting theory?

Clarity

Goals must be clear and specific. When employees understand project objectives and deadlines, there is much less risk for misunderstandings.

Challenge

Goals should be sufficiently challenging to keep employees engaged and focused while performing the tasks needed to reach each goal.

Commitment

Employees need to understand and support the goal they are being assigned from the beginning. If employees don't feel committed to the goal, they are less likely to enjoy the process

Feedback

is an important component of the goal-setting theory. It should be provided throughout the goal-achieving process to ensure tasks stay on track

Task Complexity

Goals should be broken down into smaller goals. So that goal can be achievable

Reinforcement Theory

This theory assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is likely to be repeated.

Positive reinforcement

is preferred for its long-term effects on performance, while ignoring undesired behavior is better than punishment which may create additional dysfunctional behaviors.

Positive reinforcement

• provide rewards to reinforce desired behaviors

• ex. manager praising an employee

Negative reinforcement

• remove aversive stimuli to reinforce behavior

• ex. eliminating tedious tasks when employee starts meeting deadlines

Punishment

• deliver aversive stimuli or remove pleasant stimuli to change behavior

• ex. criticism, demotion, or removing flexible working hours

Extinction

• withhold valued consequences to lower negative behavior over time

• ex. stop paying overtime to discourage employees from working too many extra hours

Designing Motivating Jobs

• suggests that jobs can be designed to enhance motivation by incorporating the 5 primary job characteristics.

• creating work that keeps employees engaged and motivated

Job design

• is the way into which tasks can be combined to form complete jobs.

• the systematic and purposeful allocation of tasks to groups and individuals within an organization

Changing organizational structure, the organization’s technology, employee’s skill, abilities, and preferences.

Factors influencing Job Design

Job Enlargement

• Central issue in designing motivating jobs

• Increasing the job’s scope (number and frequency of tasks)

Job Enrichment

• Central issue in designing motivating jobs

• increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

Is a conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that create meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’ growth needs

Skill variety, Task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback

5 primary job characteristics

Equity Theory

• This theory proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others

• individuals are motivated by their perception on how fair is the compensation and treatment for their work input

Inequitable rewards

Dissatisfaction, reduced output, departure from organization

Equitable rewards

continuation at the same level of output

More the equitable rewards

pushes the employee to work harder

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

This theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Effort

employee abilities and training/development

Performance

valid appraisal systems

Rewards (goals)

understanding employee needs

Expectancy

The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a certain level of performance.

Instrumentality

The perception that a particular level of performance will result in the attaining a desired outcome (reward).

Valence

The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual.

Cross-cultural challenges, motivating unique groups of workers, motivating professionals, motivating contingent workers, flexible work/job schedules

What are the 5 Current Issues in Motivation?

Cross-Cultural Consistencies

says that interesting work is widely desired, as is growth, achievement, and responsibility.

Contingent Workers

always see the opportunity to become a permanent employee. They also see the organization where they are currently connected to offer opportunities for training, and they are sensitive towards equity in compensation and benefits.

Designing appropriate reward programs, open book management, employee recognition programs, pay for performance, stock option programs by using financial instruments

What are the 5 issues and challenges in motivating employees?

Organizational Behavior

are the actions of people at work

Individual Behavior

Attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivation

Group Behavior

Norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict

Employee Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Job Satisfaction, Workplace Misbehavior

These are the important employee behaviors

Employee Productivity

A performance measure of both efficiency and effectiveness

Absenteeism

The failure to report to work when expected

Turnover

The voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)

Discretionary behavior that is not a part of an employee’s formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization.

Job Satisfaction

The individual’s general attitude toward his or her job

Workplace Misbehavior

Any intentional employee behavior that has negative consequences for the organization or individuals within the organization.

Deviance, Aggression, Anti-social behavior, violence

The types of misbehavior are?

attitudes, perception, personality, learning

four psychological factors that affect employee behavior

Atittudes

• are evaluative statements – either favorable or unfavorable – concerning objects, people or events

• made up of cognitive, affective and behavioral components.

cognitive, affective, behavioral

three components of attitudes

cognitive component

which include beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or information held by a person

affective component

which is the emotional or feeling part of an attitude

behavioral component

which is the intention to behave in a certain way

Job satisfaction

• is critical in an individual for it affects productivity, absenteeism, turnover, customer satisfaction and workplace misbehavior.

• is chiefly affected by the level of income earned and by the type of job a worker does.

Job Involvement

is the degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her performance to be important to his or her self-worth.

Organizational Commitment

which is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Perceived Organizational Support

• is the general belief of employees that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.

• It represents the commitment of the organization to the employee.

Cognitive Dissonance

• Any incompatibility or inconsistency between attitudes or between behavior and attitudes

• a mental conflict that occurs when beliefs don’t line up with your actions.

Attitude Surveys

• They are instruments/documents that presents employees with a set of statements or questions eliciting how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or their organization.

• It provides management with feedback on employee perceptions of the organization and their jobs

Attitudes

• warn of potential behavioral problems

• influence behaviors of employees

Personality

Is the unique combination of psychological characteristics (measurable traits) that affect how a person reacts and interacts with others

Myers Briggs Type Indicator, Big-Five Model for Personality

Personality traits can be classified using

Internal locus

persons who believe that they control their own destiny.

External locus

persons who believe that what happens to them is due to luck or chance (the uncontrollable effects of outside forces).

Machiavellianism

The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and seeks to gain and manipulate power—ends can justify means.

Self-Esteem

The degree to which people like or dislike themselves

High SE

• Believe in themselves and expect success.

• Take more risks and use unconventional approaches.

• Are more satisfied with their jobs than Low SEs.

Low SE

• Are more susceptible to external influences.

• Depend on positive evaluations from others.

• Are more prone to conform than high SEs.

Self-Monitoring

An individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.

High self-monitors

• : Are sensitive to external cues and behave differently in different situations.

• Can present contradictory public persona and private selves— impression management.

Low self-monitors

• Do not adjust their behavior to the situation.

• Are behaviorally consistent in public and private.

Risk-Taking

The propensity (or willingness) to take risks. High risk-takers take less time and require less information than low risk-takers when making a decision.

Values

• A specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or endstate of existence

• Lays the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and motivation and influences our perceptions.

• Have content and intensity attributes