PPL OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

Why were Noise Abatement Procedures (NAPs) implemented?

To reduce the noise footprint of aircraft on the surrounding areas of airfields

Penalties for pilots persistently breaking NAPS:

- Verbal briefing from tower

- Re-training with local instructor

- Restrictions on operating times

- Monetary fine

- Temporary or permanent ban from operating at airfield

Noise certification

Ensures that the latest safe and airworthy noise reduction technology is incorporated into aircraft design and enables the reductions in noise experienced by communities

(valid unless engine or airframe modifications take place)

Noise Abatement Procedures (NAPs) for large turboprop or turbojet aircraft:

Reduction in thrust with a departure route, which reduces noise ground pattern to a minimum - noise sensors positioned on departure route

Runway Incursion

Any occurrence at an airport involving the unauthorised or unplanned presence of an aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface designated for aircraft take-offs and landings

Causes of runway incursions

- pilot/air traffic controller workload

- distraction

- incorrect radio phraseology

Signal area

An area on an aerodrome used for the display of ground signals

Where is a signal area located?

Near the control tower at some aerodromes to allow messages to be passed to a pilot without the use of radio:

- In flight (by signals laid out on the ground)

- On the ground (signals hoisted up a mast located in the signal area)

Parallel yellow lines on taxiway

Holding point beyond which no part of an aircraft or vehicle may proceed in the direction of the runway without ATC permission

Broken yellow lines taxiway

Enables pilot to determine if holding point affects him, the holding point does not require a clearance to cross it (e.g turning off runway after landing)

Manoeuvring Area

That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons

Meaning of steady red light from ATC to aircraft in the air/ground

- Do not land. Give way to other aircraft circling

- STOP

Meaning of flashing red light from ATC to aircraft in the air/ground

- Do not land. Aerodrome closed (go to another aerodrome)

- Move clear of landing area

Meaning of red flare from ATC to aircraft in the air

Do not land, wait for permission

Meaning of flashing green light from ATC to aircraft in the air/ground

- Return to this aerodrome and wait for permission to land

- Cleared to taxi on manoeuvring area if pilot satisfied no collision risk exists

Meaning of steady green light from ATC to aircraft in the air/ground

- Cleared to land if pilot satisfied no collision risk exists

- Cleared to take-off if pilot satisfied no collision risk exists

Meaning of flashing white light from ATC to aircraft in the air/ground

- Land at this aerodrome after receiving steady green light and await further instructions

- Return to starting point on aerodrome

Meaning of aircraft flashing landing/and or navigation lights to ATSU

I am compelled to land

Meaning of aircraft showing red flare to ATSU

Immediate assistance required

Meaning of aircraft showing green flare to ATSU

By night: May I land?

By day: May I land in a different direction from that indicated by the landing T?

Runway hotspot

An area which has the potential of having, or has had a higher number of runway incursions because of complexity of taxiways, number of runways and traffic flow

Guard lights

Flashing yellow lights on either side of hold lines to provide warning of close proximity of a runway

Red stop bars

Group of red lights situated at 90 degrees to the taxiway which act as traffic lights - you must not cross lit stop bar

ILS (Instrument Landing System)

A system of navigational radios used for guiding aircraft during unfavourable weather conditions such as fog

CAT I, II, III

- Different categories of approaches based upon visibility at the airfield (III is worst)

- The worse the weather, the more the radio signal has to be protected, holding points move further away from the runway

Situational awareness

Knowing where you are in relation to what is going on around you:

- Gather information using all of human senses

- Analyse information

- Decision making

- Review

Where to find Noise Abatement Procedures for a licensed airfield?

In the applicable airfield entry in the AIP

Where to find Noise Abatement Procedures for an unlicensed airfield?

Commercial flight guide such as 'Pooley's Flight Guide'

3 components to sustain combustion (burning):

- Oxygen

- Fire

- Heat

Types of components found in aircraft (OXYGEN):

Atmosphere, portable breathing equipment for high altitude flight, oxygen generators used in pressurised cabins, chemical reactions between components

Types of components found in aircraft (FUEL):

Fuel, hydraulic fluid, oil, or any combustible material

Types of components found in aircraft (IGNITION/HEAT):

Engine ignition system, hot pipes, internal combustion chamber, cigarettes, electrical system, lightning strikes, static charges, arcing

4 cases of fire in an aircraft:

1) Engine start

2) Inflight

3) Electrical

4) Post-crash

Objective of engine fire or smoke checklist:

- Extinguish the fire and/or smoke

- Get the aircraft on the ground as quickly as possible

- Minimise damage to other critical components

What happens when you over prime an engine?

Causes excess fuel to enter the air intake, if the engine backfires during the start the excess fuel may ignite

General actions for carburettor fire:

1) Starter - crank engine (to start)

If start then run for 3 mins then shut down and inform

IF NO START:

2) Mixture - Idle cut-off

3) Throttle - open

4) Electric fuel pump - off

5) Fuel selector - off

6) Ignition - off

7) ATC (if able) - Inform

8) Electric Master - off

9) Locate fire extinguisher and evacuate upwind of the aircraft

Evidence for engine fire:

- Flames and/or smoke around the engine

- Increased cabin temperature especially in foot-well

- Fuel smell

- Rough running or engine failure

- Fire warning system

- ATC may try contact

- Other aircraft

- Passengers

Fuel source of fire: Black coloured flames

Oil based

Fuel source of fire: Orange coloured flames

Fuel based

General actions for an engine fire:

1) Fuel selector - off

2) Throttle - closed

3) Mixture - Idle cut off

4) Electric fuel pump - off

5) Heater - off

6) Defroster - off

7) Execute power-off landing

2 accepted techniques of emergency descent:

1) Initially roll to 30 degrees AOB, maintain positive load factor, lower nose and once established in the descent return to wings level. Descend at high speed-not above VNE

2) Reduce speed to below VFE and VLE and lower flaps and landing gear then descend at most limiting manoeuvre speed

Transmit MAYDAY call as soon as possible and check every 500-1000ft during descent whether fire still exists

Fire in cabin examples:

- Faulty wiring in the avionic components (most common)

- Smoking

- Cigarette lighter igniting a material

- Flammable cargo

- Fuel line puncture

- Thermal runaway in a battery in a personal tablet/laptop

How are electrical fires identified?

Acrid smell and fine, light grey/white smoke coming from the instrument panel

General actions for an electrical fire:

1) Battery master - off

2) Cabin vents - open

3) Cabin heat - off

4) Located BCF fire extinguisher

5) Land as soon as practicable

Before turning off battery or avionics master switch remember to declare 'MAYDAY'

4 classifications of fire:

- Solids

- Flammable liquids

- Electrical

- Metals

Class A Fire

- Wood, paper, cloth or plastic

- Extinguished by cooling agent (e.g water)

- Aggravated by alcohol

- Grey/brown thick smoke

Class B fire

- Flammable liquid, hydraulic fluid, oil, tar, or aircraft fuel

- Extinguished by foam or halon fire extinguisher

- Water will not extinguish the fire

- Black and very thick smoke with distinct oil/petrol-like odour

Class C fire

- Electrical

- Extinguished by non-conducting mixture to avoid electrocution (e.g Halon extinguisher)

- Aggravated by water

- Light grey or white, with blush tinge, acrid odour

Class D fire

- Metals (sodium, magnesium, lithium, potassium)

- Special powder extinguishers used due to possible chemical reaction between burning and extinguishing agents

- Aggravated by Halon fire extinguishers

Why have Halon extinguishers been limited?

Halon is damaging to the environment and aids global warming but exemption made for use in aviation

Hand-held extinguishers unsuitable as cabin or cockpit equipment:

- CO2

- Dry chemicals

- Specialised dry powder

2 main toxic gases within smoke

Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide

Effects of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide poisoning and degradation of pilot's performance:

- Headache

- Weakness

- Nausea

- Dizziness

- Confusion

- Dimness of vision

- Impaired judgement

- Unconsciousness leading to death

- vomiting (HC)

Further effects of smoke:

- Reduces visibility

- Disorientation

- Eyes, nose and throat irritation

- Hypoxia

- Increased breathing rate

General actions for smoke in the cabin:

1) Source of fire - check

2) Master switch - Off

3) Vents - Open

4) Cabin heat - Off

5) Locate fire extinguisher

6) Land as soon as practicable

What to do if smoke is not clearing?

- Consider cracking door open or ventilation windows

- Transmit MAYDAY call to ATC before turning off master switch

How many fire classifications are there?

4

Purpose of a CO detector

To detect carbon monoxide in the cabin

Windshear

A sudden change in wind direction and/or speed over a vertical or horizontal distance within a short distance or short time

Overshoot effect

Flying into increasing headwind, decreasing tailwind or into updraft will increase the rate of climb and increase the angle of climb relative to the ground

Undershoot effect

Flying into increasing tailwind, decreasing headwind, or into downdraft will decrease the rate of climb and angle of climb relative to the ground

Most hazardous updrafts and downdrafts usually associated with

Thunderstorms

Low-level windshear

Windshear along the final approach path prior to landing, along the runway and along the take-off/initial climb-out flight path

Windshear reversal effect

Caused by windshear which results in initial effect on the aeroplane being reversed as aircraft proceeds further along flight path

- Overshoot followed by undershoot

- Undershoot followed by overshoot

Crosswind effect

Caused by a windshear which requires a rapid change of aircraft heading to maintain a desired track

Causes of windshear

Wind being slowed down by:

- ground surface roughness

- abrupt changed in terrain

- thunderstorms

- cumulonimbus clouds

- large cumulus clouds

- low-level jetstreams

- fronts

- thermal activity

Microburst

A downdraft that causes quick gusts of strong wind and fans out horizontally. They are short lived, lasting 5-15 minutes, usually affecting an area of 1-3 kilometres

Actions to avoid windshear and microburts

- Study significant weather charts and terminal aerodrome forecasts for likelihood of thunderstorms and gusty winds

- relevant airfield entry in AIP might indicate airfield prone to low-level windshear

- In flight listen to airfield ATIS and contact ATSU early for local weather conditions/pilot reports

Course of action when dealing with windshear

Recognise - windshear is a hazard

Avoid - windshear by delay or diversion

Prepare - for an inadvertent encounter by a 'speed margin' if 'energy loss' is expected

Recover - know the techniques recommended for your aircraft and use them without hesitation if windshear encountered

Report - Immediately to ATC controlling the airfield at which the incident occurred

Wake turbulence

A function of an aircraft producing lift, resulting in the formation of two counter-rotating vortices trailing behind the aircraft

Actions ATC take to avoid wake turbulence accidents and incidents:

ATC delays the operation of light aircraft on runways behind heavy jets for up to 3 minutes before take-off to allow vortices to drift away and dissipate

Main aim of wake turbulence avoidance:

To avoid passing through it at all, especially in flight

Avoiding wake turbulence on take-off:

- Start take-off at the end of the runway to become airborne in the area well before the point where heavy aircraft rotated OR delay take-off

- Do not use less than full length of runway

- Manoeuvre to avoid vortices by climbing steeply or turning away

- When taking off after heavy aircraft has landed, become airborne well past the point where it flared and landed

Avoiding wake turbulence in the circuit:

- Avoid flying below and behind large aircraft

- Fly a few hundred feet above, a thousand feet below them or windward of them

Avoiding wake turbulence on approach to land:

- Fly above heavy aircraft approach path and land well beyond touchdown point

- Touchdown well short of lift-off point of heavy aircraft taking off

- If heavy aircraft has gone around consider changing flightpath

Jet blast

High-velocity air exhausted from a jet engine or a large propellor-driven aircraft (can be dangerous to light aircraft taxiing behind)

Helicopter rotor tip vortices

- Helicopters generate significant and powerful rotor tip vortices when hover-taxiing and hovering

- Extra care when taking off and landing near air-taxiing helicopters, if in doubt go around

What should pilots avoid with helicopters

Operating within 3 rotor diameters of any helicopter in a slow hover taxi or stationary hover

When are strongest wake turbulence vortices formed?

At high angles of attack necessary to produce the required lift force at low speeds

Distress

A condition of being threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring immediate assistance

Urgency

A condition concerning the safety of an aircraft or other vehicle, or of some person on board within sight, but which does not require immediate assistance

3 emergency phases:

- Uncertainty phase

- Alert phase

- Distress phase

Uncertainty phase

A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its occupants

Alert phase

A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its occupants

Distress phase

A situation wherein there is a reasonable certainty that an aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and imminent danger and require immediate assistance

Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC)

Unit responsible for promoting efficient organisation of search and rescue services and for coordinating the conduct of search and rescue operations within a S&R region (121.500MHz)

'MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY' emergency situation

- Engine failure

- Emergency descent

- Fire or smoke

- Mid-air collision

- Loss of control

- Hijack

- Fuel leak

- Undercarriage failure

- Any time-critical non-normal event

'PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN' emergency situation

- Alternator failure

- Cracked windscreen

- Landing on flat tyre

- Sick passenger

- Any non-normal event which is not time-critical

Initial actions following engine failure/rough running engine are to:

- Trim for best glide speed

- Plan forced landing pattern

- Declare 'MAYDAY' call to ATC and set transponder 7700

Complete generic fault finding checks:

1) Fuel selector - tank containing fuel

2) Electric fuel pump - on

3) Mixture - rich

4) Carburettor heat - on

5) Engine gauges - Check for indication of power loss

6) Primer - check locked

Initial actions following engine failure/rough running engine if no fuel pressure indicated:

Check tank selector position is on tank containing fuel. Attempt restart, if power is restored:

1) Carb heat - off

2) Electric fuel pump - off

If power not restored, prepare for power off landing - trim for best glide speed

NITS briefing

- Nature of problem

- Intentions

- Time to handle situation

- Special instructions

Planned emergency

Time available to brief passengers, secure cockpit/seating area, ready emergency equipment

Unplanned emergency

No warning given, normally occurs at critical phase of flight such as take-off and landing, actions have to be specific and direct

Items that should be covered during initial safety brief:

- Emergency exit locations and use

- Operation of seatbelts

- Location and use of fire extinguisher and first aid kit

- Correct seating position and adjustment

- Instruction to remain clear of controls

- Brace position

In the event of planned emergency on land instruct passengers:

- Remove all sharp objects, dentures and high-heeled shoes, stow in passenger compartments or under seat

- Location of emergency exits and alternatives

- How to fasten, tighten seat belts and when/how to release

- How to get into brace position and how long to maintain for

- Location and operation of Emergency Locator Transmitter and/or Personal Locator Beacons

In the event of ditching instruct passengers to:

- Don life jackets and inflate them only once outside the aircraft, but before entering the water, or life raft

- On the location and operation of life raft, inflate only once outside the aircraft

- The location of grab bag (emergency kit)

Post evacuation on land, you should:

- Direct passengers upwind of aircraft

- Administer first aid as required

- Conduct a head count

- Contact the emergency services

- Activate Personal Locator Beacons if in remote location

- Reassure passengers

- Do not return to aircraft unless necessary

Post evacuation on water, you should:

- Instruct passengers not to inflate life jacket until outside aircraft, before entering life raft/dinghy

- Locate grab bag and life raft

- Group passengers together, remain inside life raft

- Administer first aid as required

- Activate Personal Locator Beacons

What to shout 15 seconds before impact:

'BRACE BRACE, BRACE BRACE, BRACE BRACE'

What to shout once evacuation checklist complete:

'EVACUATE EVACUATE UNDO YOUR SEATBELTS AND GET OUT'