Onramps Bio Midterm LM 1-13; Units 0-4

Traits of Life

Emergence

Biological Hierarchy

The traits of life- cellular organization, growth and development, energy processing, reproduction, response to stimuli, adaptation, and homeostasis.

Emergence-- living organisms arise from the complex interactions of simpler, non-living components

Biological Hierarchy- system of organizing living things, and the traits of life are the characteristics common to all living organisms

Demonstrate an understanding of the Central Dogma and be able to explain the role of DNA, RNA, ribosomes and proteins in life on Earth.

DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein. DNA serves as the stable, permanent blueprint for an organism, storing all genetic instructions in the sequence of its nucleotides. RNA acts as a temporary, mobile copy of this information, and ribosomes read this RNA code to assemble proteins, the functional workhorses of the cell.

Evidence of common ancestry

Central Dogma

Phylogeny of life

Common ancestry- genetics, anatomy, embryology, biochemistry, biogeography, and the fossil record. For example, the DNA and protein similarities between species

Central Dogma - the principle that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein

Phylogeny of Life- the evolutionary history and relationships among all living and extinct organisms, often represented by a Tree of Life

Three Domains of Life and Two Types of Cells

Domains -- Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Types of cells -- Prokaryote and eukaryotic.

Recognize that biology is the study of living organisms, including their structure, function, biochemistry, regulatory processes, development and evolution.

Structure - The organization of living things, from the cellular level to entire organisms.

Function - How organisms perform life processes, such as metabolism and energy regulation.

Biochemistry - The chemical processes that occur within and are related to living organisms.

Regulatory processes - The ability of organisms to maintain stable internal conditions, known as homeostasis, despite changes in their environment.

Development - The process of growth and change that living things undergo throughout their life cycle.

Evolution - The process by which species change over time and how new species arise from older ones.

Describe the fundamental unit of life, heredity, and processes that drive change in living organisms.

The fundamental unit of life is the cell, which performs all necessary life functions. Heredity is governed by genes, segments of DNA that carry instructions for traits. Processes that drive change, or evolution, include mutation, natural selection, gene flow, and genetic drift.

Explain how emergent properties of living organisms such as growth and development emerge from and depend upon interactions of elements at different levels of biological organization.

Emergent properties like growth and development arise from the interactions of components at different levels of biological organization, where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Multiple cells form tissues, tissues form organs, and organs form organ systems that collectively perform complex functions, including growth and development, which is not possible at lower levels.

Describe the hierarchy of complexity in biological systems and give examples to illustrate the relationships among different hierarchical levels.

The hierarchy of biological complexity moves from the simplest units to the most complex, where each level is composed of the units from the level below it. This hierarchy includes: atoms, cells, organs, organ systems, organism. Multiple organisms of the same species form a population; different populations in an area create a community; a community plus the physical environment forms an ecosystem; and all ecosystems together make up the biosphere.

Identify the types of evidence that support the scientific theory that life on earth had a common ancestor and all life forms evolved over a long period of time.

fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular biology (DNA and genetics), embryology, and biogeography

Recognize key features of taxonomic groups of living organisms and be able to classify taxa into domains reflecting their evolutionary history.

cellular structure (prokaryote or eukaryote), number of cells (unicellular or multicellular), energy acquisition (autotroph or heterotroph), and reproduction method (sexual or asexual). Based on these, organisms are placed into the three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, which reflect their evolutionary history. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, while Eukarya includes all organisms with a nucleus.

Elements of The Universe

mostly H and He; also includes O,C,N

Basic Atomic Structure

Electron Shells

An atom's basic structure consists of a central nucleus containing positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons

Electron shells are energy levels or layers of orbitals where electrons are found surrounding an atom's nucleus. The outermost shell, called the valence shell, contains the valence electrons, which determine an atom's chemical properties and reactivity.

Basic Atomic Structure

Ions vs Isotopes

Ions are atoms that have gained or lost electrons, giving them a net electrical charge. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.

Basic Atomic Structure

Electronegativity

an atom's ability to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond; increase from L to R on periodic table, decrease from T to B.

Basic Atomic Structure

Nuclear Notation

a way to write a specific isotope of an element using the chemical symbol, the mass number, and the atomic number

Understand that models of the atom are used to help understand the properties of elements and compounds, and be able to compare these properties between elements.

Atomic models are theoretical representations that help explain and predict the properties of elements and compounds, which are based on an atom's structure, like the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. These models allow us to compare elements by understanding how their atomic structures, particularly the number and arrangement of electrons, influence their properties, such as melting point, reactivity, and bonding behavior.

Explain the organization of the periodic table and be able to identify trends in groups and periods such as electronegativity.

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number into rows called periods and vertical columns called groups. Elements in the same group share similar chemical properties due to having the same number of valence electrons, while periods reflect the filling of electron shells. Key trends include electronegativity, which increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group, and atomic radius, which trends in the opposite direction.

Using the mass, atomic or electron number, predict the valance structure, charge, and location of an element on the periodic table.

The atomic number determines the number of protons and, for a neutral atom, the number of electrons. The periodic table is organized by electron shells (periods/rows) and valence electrons (groups/columns), which allows you to predict how elements will behave chemically and the charges they will form as ions.

Chemical bonds

Attractive forces that hold atoms or ions together to form molecules, crystals, and other compounds. They form when atoms share or transfer their outer-shell (valence) electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration. Key types of chemical bonds include covalent, ionic, and metallic bonds.

Intramolecular Forces

Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonds are a type of intramolecular force, meaning they hold atoms together within a compound. They are formed by the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, which are created when a metal atom transfers one or more electrons to a nonmetal atom. This transfer creates a positive cation and a negative anion that are then strongly bonded together.

Intramolecular Forces

Covalent Bonds

Intramolecular forces are the strong bonds within a molecule, and a covalent bond is one type where atoms share electrons to achieve stability. This is in contrast to intermolecular forces, which are the weaker attractions between separate molecules. Covalent bonds are responsible for holding atoms together in a molecule, and the type of covalent bond (polar or nonpolar) depends on the difference in electronegativity between the bonding atoms.

non-polar bonds vs polar bonds

Nonpolar bonds have an equal sharing of electrons, while polar bonds have an unequal sharing due to a difference in electronegativity between the two atoms.

Nonpolar bonds occur when there is little to no electronegativity difference (typically <0.5)

Polar bonds occur with a larger electronegativity difference (typically 0.5 to 1.9)

Hydrogen bond

An electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) and a lone pair of electrons on a nearby electronegative atom. weak.

Properties of water; Molecular structure and dipole forces

Water's properties are determined by its bent molecular structure and polar nature, which arises because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, creating partial charges (δ−delta on oxygen and δ+delta on hydrogen) that do not cancel out. This polarity leads to dipole-dipole forces, with the partial positive hydrogen of one water molecule being attracted to the partial negative oxygen of another molecule. These intermolecular forces are called hydrogen bonds and are stronger than standard dipole-dipole forces, influencing many of water's unique properties, such as its high surface tension, specific heat, and ability to act as a solvent.

pH

measures how acidic or basic a substance is on a logarithmic scale of 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, a pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic. It is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in an aqueous solution.

Construct stable biological molecules with the atoms: C, H, O, N, S, and P through intramolecular covalent bonds, and distinguish between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.

Examples of stable biological molecules

Glucose (C6H12O6cap C sub 6 cap H sub 12 cap O sub 6𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6)

Nucleotide (e.g., deoxyadenosine monophosphate)

Amino Acid (e.g., cysteine)

Rank the relative bond strength in hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions within and between molecules. Give a specific example for each of these in the context of the cell with aqueous surroundings.

The relative bond strengths from strongest to weakest are: ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions. In a cell, ionic bonds are exemplified by the attraction of charged amino acids in a protein, hydrogen bonds hold together the DNA double helix, hydrophobic interactions drive the folding of proteins, and van der Waals interactions occur between close, nonpolar regions of molecules.

Relative bond strength (strongest

Explain why and which part of a polar molecule can possibly form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules while those with nonpolar covalent bonds cannot form such H-bonds.

Polar molecules can form hydrogen bonds because they have a slightly positive hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) and a nearby electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons. Nonpolar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds because the electrons are shared equally in the covalent bonds, creating no permanent partial charges to attract other molecules.

Deduce the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) for a given pH and relate the pH scale to the acidity and alkalinity of solutions. Define the role of a buffer system in a biological context with a specific example.

Acidity: Solutions with a pH below 777 are acidic, meaning they have a higher concentration of H+cap H raised to the positive power𝐻+ ions.

Alkalinity (Basicity): Solutions with a pH above 777 are alkaline (basic), meaning they have a higher concentration of OH−cap O cap H raised to the negative power𝑂𝐻− ions.

Neutrality: A neutral solution has a pH of exactly 777, where the concentrations of H+cap H raised to the positive power𝐻+ and OH−cap O cap H raised to the negative power𝑂𝐻− ions are equal.

Buffer system role

Function: A buffer system is a solution that can resist a change in pH when an acid or a base is added to it.

Introduction to polymers.

Polymers are large molecules made of repeating smaller units called monomers, which are linked together in long chains

Dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

Dehydration synthesis builds polymers by removing a water molecule to form a bond between monomers, while hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule to break the bond. They opps.

Bonding Patterns in Carbon

Carbon's bonding patterns are versatile, primarily due to its four valence electrons, allowing it to form a total of four bonds.

Functional Groups

Hydroxyl (−𝑂𝐻): polar

Carboxylic (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻): polar/ionic

Carbonyl (𝐶=𝑂): polar

Amino (𝑁𝐻2): polar

Phosphate: polar/ionic

Methyl: non-polar

Sulfhydryl: polar

Explain how water's capacity for hydrogen bonding accounts for its unique physical properties. Give examples of how these physical properties and water's major role in cellular reactions all support life.

Water's hydrogen bonds create a unique set of properties, including high specific heat, cohesion, adhesion, and its function as a versatile solvent, which are critical for life. These properties allow for temperature regulation in organisms and ecosystems, the transport of nutrients, and provide the medium for countless cellular reactions.

Explain how complex biological molecules are produced from simple monomers by condensation or broken down into simple monomers by hydrolysis.

Complex biological molecules are built from simple monomers by condensation (or dehydration synthesis), a process that links monomers by removing a water molecule to form a new covalent bond. They are broken down by hydrolysis, which uses a water molecule to break the bond between monomers.

Recognize the variety of carbon compounds and the properties (polarity, charge) of their distinctive functional groups.

Carbon compounds vary widely due to their ability to form single, double, and triple bonds, creating diverse structures with functional groups. These functional groups have distinct properties: the methyl group is nonpolar, while groups containing oxygen, nitrogen, or phosphorus (like hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate) are polar or charged and often hydrophilic.

Classify the functional groups as acids and bases. Rank the functional groups in terms of most polar to least polar.

Acids: Carboxyl and Sulfonic acid groups can donate a proton (𝐻+).

Bases: Amino (𝑁𝐻2) groups can accept a proton (𝐻+). Have fun with ranking them big dawg, I'm not doing all that.

Recognize the chemical structure of the monomers that comprise the biological molecules and predict their chemical properties and behavior in aqueous solution.

The four classes of biological macromolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Carbohydrates are made of monosaccharide monomers, proteins from amino acid monomers, nucleic acids from nucleotide monomers, and lipids (unlike the others) are not polymers but are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. Carbohydrates and nucleic acids are polar and hydrophilic in water due to polar groups, while proteins can be both polar and nonpolar based on their amino acid side chains, and lipids are largely hydrophobic due to nonpolar hydrocarbon chains.

Introduction to Carbohydrates (CHOs)

sugars and starches, are a major class of biological molecules that are the body's primary source of energy.

Functions of CHOs

provide energy for the body, store energy for later use, spare protein for other functions, and prevent ketosis.

Structure of CHOs

-Number of Carbon atoms, location and orientation of functional groups

Carbohydrate (CHO) structure is defined by the number of carbon atoms, the location of the carbonyl functional group (aldehyde or ketone), and the stereochemical orientation of the hydroxyl functional groups.

Monosaccharides

-Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose.

simple sugars

Glucose: A primary source of energy for cells.

Fructose: Found in fruits and honey, and is known as the sweetest monosaccharide.

Galactose: Found in milk as part of lactose and can also be used as cell fuel.

Ribose: A pentose (5-carbon) sugar that is a component of RNA.

-Alpha vs beta glucose

In alpha glucose, the -OH group points down, while in beta glucose, it points up. This structural difference affects their roles: alpha glucose forms energy-storage polysaccharides like starch, and beta glucose forms structural polysaccharides like cellulose.

The glycosidic bond

a covalent bond that links a carbohydrate molecule to another group, such as another sugar, protein, or nitrogenous base. It is formed through a dehydration reaction where two hydroxyl groups lose a water molecule. for big carbs

Disaccharides

-Sucrose, maltose, lactose

carbohydrates made of two simpler sugar units called monosaccharides.

Disaccharide: A carbohydrate formed by two simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked together.

Sucrose: A disaccharide made of one glucose and one fructose molecule; it is commonly known as table sugar and is found in fruits and vegetables.

Lactose: A disaccharide made of one glucose and one galactose molecule; it is the sugar found in milk and other dairy products. think of Big Boy Carson

Maltose: A disaccharide made of two glucose molecules; it is found in germinating grains and cereals.

Polysaccharides

-Alpha vs beta glucose bonding patterns

in alpha glucose, the -OH group is pointed down (below the plane of the ring), while in beta glucose, it is pointed up (above the plane). This single structural difference affects how they form polymers like starch and cellulose, leading to distinct properties such as their helical versus linear structures and how they are digested.

Polysaccharides

-Structural-cellulose and chitin

Cellulose and chitin are both structural polysaccharides that provide rigidity to living organisms, but cellulose is found in plant and algal cell walls, while chitin is primarily in the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of arthropods like insects and crustaceans. Their primary difference is the monomer unit: cellulose is a polymer of glucose, whereas chitin is a polymer of a derivative, which makes it slightly stronger.

Lipids Overview

-Types and functions

The main types are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. They serve as the body's long-term energy storage, form cell membranes, insulate organs, and act as hormones and vitamins.

Triglycerides

Fatty acids

a type of fat in the blood that consists of a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains. When you eat, your body breaks down fats into fatty acids, which are then reassembled into triglycerides to be transported through the bloodstream as an energy source

Triglycerides

Glycerol

Glycerol is a colorless, odorless, sweet-tasting, viscous liquid used in many industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. Its benefits stem from its properties as a humectant (moisture retainer), solvent, and sweetener, but it can have side effects like nausea and diarrhea when ingested orally.

Triglycerides

Ester Bonds

covalent links that connect a glycerol molecule to three fatty acid chains, forming a triglyceride.

Triglycerides

-Fluidity of fats

fats are fluid, trust.

Phospholipids

a class of lipids essential for cell membranes, made of a hydrophilic phosphate "head" and two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails".

-Amphipathic molecular structure

a molecule with both a polar (hydrophilic, or water-loving) and a nonpolar (hydrophobic, or water-fearing) region. dual action

-Lipid Bilayer

a thin, double layer of lipid molecules that forms a stable barrier, such as a cell membrane

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is the precursor for all steroid hormones, including sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen, as well as corticosteroids like cortisol.

Recognize the chemical structure of glucose and the glycosidic bond.

Glucose is a simple sugar with the chemical formula

𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6, which typically forms a six-membered ring structure containing five carbons and one oxygen atom.

The bond is identified by the numbers of the carbons involved and whether the link is an "alpha" or "beta" type.

Correlate the structures of different carbohydrates with their functions in cells.

The structure of different carbohydrates directly correlates with their functions in cells, with variations in size, monomer orientation (alpha vs. beta linkages), and branching determining whether they are used for energy, storage, or structural support.

Recognize the chemical structures of fatty acids and the ester bond

Fatty acid structure

Basic structure: A long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) at one end.

Ester bond structure

Formation: An ester bond is formed in a reaction called esterification, where a carboxyl group (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) of a fatty acid reacts with the hydroxyl (𝑂𝐻) group of an alcohol, such as glycerol.

Compare the structure and properties of different types of lipids present in cells.

Cellular lipids, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, vary in structure and function: triglycerides store energy, phospholipids form cell membranes, and steroids act as hormones and membrane components.

Differentiate the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid components of triglycerides and phospholipids and their corresponding physical and functional properties.

Saturated fatty acids have single bonds and are solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds and are liquid at room temperature. unsatuarted is wonky looking.

Introduction to the Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are essential macromolecules that carry genetic information and are crucial for all living organisms. They are polymers made of smaller units called nucleotides.

Nucleotide Structure

A nucleotide consists of three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. The specific base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine)

Phosphodiester bond

a covalent bond that links the sugar and phosphate groups together to form the backbone of DNA and RNA.

Function: Phosphodiester bonds are crucial for the structural integrity and function of nucleic acids, enabling them to form the double helix of DNA and the single strand of RNA.

Polynucleotides

long chains of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, that are used in aesthetic medicine to rejuvenate skin and promote tissue repair

DNA and RNA

Structure

Function

DNA

Structure: Double-stranded helix.

Function: Stores the hereditary information for an organism. Is stable and is replicated, making it suitable for long-term genetic storage that is passed from generation to generation.

RNA

Structure: Typically single-stranded, but can form double-helical sections.

Function:

Protein Synthesis: Actively participates in gene expression by translating DNA's instructions into proteins.

Gene Expression: Carries instructions from the DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.

Central Dogma of Biology

describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein through the processes of transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).

Recognize the chemical structures of nucleotides and the phosphodiester bond.

A nucleotide has three parts: a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. A phosphodiester bond is a covalent link that connects the 5' phosphate group of one nucleotide to the 3' hydroxyl group of the sugar on the next nucleotide, forming the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA and RNA. This linkage creates a repeating sugar-phosphate chain with the bases projecting outwards.

Compare and contrast the structure and properties of DNA and RNA and tell how their structure relates to their respective functions.

DNA and RNA differ in their sugar (deoxyribose vs. ribose), the nitrogenous bases (thymine vs. uracil), and strand structure (double-stranded helix vs. single-stranded).

These structural differences directly relate to their functions: DNA's stability and double helix make it ideal for long-term genetic storage, while RNA's single-strand nature and different sugar make it more reactive and suitable for temporary roles in protein synthesis, such as a messenger or an enzyme.

Introduction to Proteins

Proteins are essential macromolecules made of amino acid chains that perform a vast array of functions in living organisms, from providing structure and catalyzing reactions as enzymes to transporting molecules and aiding in immune response.

Amino Acid Structure

consists of a central alpha carbon atom bonded to an amino group (𝑁𝐻2), a carboxyl group (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻), a hydrogen atom (𝐻), and a unique side chain called an R-group.

Protein Structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

primary is the amino acid sequence; secondary refers to local structures like alpha-helices and beta-sheets; tertiary is the overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain; and quaternary is the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in a protein complex.

Recognize the chemical structures of amino acids and the peptide bond.

An amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (𝑁𝐻2), a carboxyl group (𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻), a hydrogen atom, and a unique side chain (R-group).

A peptide bond is a covalent bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another during a dehydration synthesis (condensation) reaction, which releases a water molecule (𝐻2𝑂)

Distinguish four levels of protein structure. Predict how the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide affects the protein's structure and thus its function.

Primary structure: The linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary structure: Localized folding patterns, such as αalpha𝛼-helices and βbeta𝛽-pleated sheets, which are formed by hydrogen bonds between the atoms of the polypeptide backbone.

Tertiary structure: The complete, three-dimensional conformation of a single polypeptide chain, which is determined by interactions between the side chains (Rcap R𝑅-groups) of the amino acids.

Quaternary structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) into a single functional protein complex.

List several ways in which protein structure can be altered by changes in its environment (e.g., temperature, pH).

Changes in temperature and pH can alter protein structure by disrupting the bonds that hold it together, causing it to lose its shape. Changes in pH alter the electrical charges on amino acids, leading to changes in their interactions and the overall shape.

Introduction to basic cell biology

the study of the basic structural and functional unit of life, the cell. All organisms are made of cells, which contain a membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material (DNA).

3 tenets of cell theory

all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Common features to all cells on Earth

a plasma membrane that acts as a protective outer barrier, cytoplasm which is a jelly-like substance filling the cell, genetic material (DNA) that holds the cell's instructions, and ribosomes where proteins are synthesized.

Conditions on early Earth

intense heat from volcanic activity and meteorite bombardment, a lack of free oxygen in the atmosphere, and frequent electrical storms.

Requirements for life to evolve

a stable environment with key elements: liquid water, a source of energy, and biogenic elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

Endosymbiosis and Origins of Eukaryotes

The endosymbiotic theory explains the origin of eukaryotes through a series of symbiotic events where one cell engulfs another, leading to a mutually beneficial relationship. This theory proposes that early eukaryotic cells formed when an ancient archaeon engulfed an aerobic bacterium, which eventually evolved into the mitochondria found in modern eukaryotes

3 Domains of Life made up of 2 types of cells

The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, which are made up of two types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Plant cells vs animal cells

plant have cell wall and cholorplast, animal has no cell wall and centroles

Role of organelles

Nucleus:

The cell's control center, storing the genetic material (DNA) that dictates all cell functions.

Ribosomes:

Responsible for protein synthesis based on instructions from the DNA.

Mitochondria:

Generate energy for the cell by converting food into a usable form called ATP through cellular respiration.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

A network for transporting materials and a site for protein and lipid synthesis. The rough ER has ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis, while the smooth ER produces lipids and detoxifies the cell.

Golgi Apparatus:

Receives, sorts, modifies, and packages proteins and lipids for transport to other parts of the cell or outside the cell.

Lysosomes:

Act as the cell's recycling centers, breaking down waste

materials, debris, and worn-out organelles.

Plasma Membrane:

Separates the cell from its environment and regulates what enters and leaves the cell.

Cytoskeleton:

Provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and helps with the movement of organelles.

Vacuoles:

Storage sacs for water, nutrients, and waste. Plant cells typically have a large central vacuole.

Mitochondria structure and function

Mitochondria are double-membraned organelles known as the "powerhouses of the cell" because their primary function is to generate the cell's main energy currency, ATP, through cellular respiration.

Nucleus structure and function

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material (𝐷𝑁𝐴) and controls cell activities. Its primary functions include storing genetic information, regulating gene expression (transcription), and initiating DNA replication for cell division.

Endomembrane system

a network of organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids.

Develop hypotheses about how molecular interactions under early earth conditions could have led to the formation of ancestral cells and consider possible experiments to test these hypotheses.

early Earth's molecular interactions could have led to the formation of ancestral cells through stages: 1) abiotic synthesis of organic molecules from inorganic compounds, 2) formation of self-replicating macromolecules like RNA, and 3) encapsulation of these molecules within lipid membranes to form protocells.

Predict properties of a biological molecule that would make it an ideal candidate to be the first molecule of heredity in the pre-biotic world.

store genetic information (like a sequence), be able to replicate itself, and have catalytic activity to perform reactions, like folding into ribozymes.

Identify the types of evidence that support the scientific theory that life on earth had a common ancestor and all life forms evolved over a long period of time.

fossil record,comparative anatomy, biogeography, and molecular biology,

Outline appropriate experimental method for observing cells and understanding the functions of various molecules and organelles.

combination of microscopy techniques, cell culture, and biochemical methods.

Compare and contrast cell structure, membrane and cell wall biochemistry, and genomic structure in the three domains of life.

Bacteria: Prokaryotic; lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. DNA is a circular chromosome in the nucleoid region.

Archaea: Prokaryotic; lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. DNA is a circular chromosome in the nucleoid region.

Eukarya: Eukaryotic; have a membrane-bound nucleus containing linear chromosomes and various membrane-bound organelles.

Compare and contrast organelles, cell junctions, and cell surface structures in plant and animal cells.

plant cells have chloroplasts and a large central vacuole, while animal cells have lysosomes and centrosomes.

Cell junctions, animal cells use structures like tight junctions and desmosomes for adhesion and barrier formation, whereas plant cells have plasmodesmata that allow communication and transport through their cell walls.

Describe the relationship between structure and function in eukaryotic cell organelles and apply this information to explain the results of experimental manipulations and organelle defects that cause disease.

The structure of a eukaryotic organelle is directly related to its function, enabling the specialized environments needed for complex biochemical reactions through compartmentalization. This relationship is evident in the effects of experimental manipulations and the pathology of various diseases.

Given the major function of a particular specialized eukaryotic cell, predict the relative abundance and distribution of its various organelles.

A eukaryotic cell's organelle abundance and distribution directly correspond to its specialized function, with organelles essential to that function being more numerous and concentrated.

Introduction to the plasma membrane

the thin, flexible boundary that surrounds a cell, controlling the passage of substances in and out through a semi-permeable layer. Its structure is primarily a phospholipid bilayer.

3 main functions of the cell membrane

protection, transport regulation, and cell communication.

Structure of the membrane

a fluid mosaic of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

4 molecular components

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Location of molecular components

determined by the molecule's chemical bonds and overall geometry, with positions defined by bond lengths, bond angles, and dihedral angles.