psych 150 exam 1

Core components of personality

traits, states, acts

Traits

characters, values, temperament;
generally consistent, stable, and have internal cues

States

feelings, experiences, thoughts in reaction to external situations;
private, short-term

Acts

behaviors, activities, habits;
observable, have internal/intentional causes

Related components to personality

physical appearance, social effects/evaluations (effect you have on others), talents/skills

Personality

characteristics of a person that describe and account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving

Freud’s philosophical view of the person

people are driven by sex & aggression, anxiety & defense mechanisms

Rogers’ philosophical view of the person

people are driven by self-actualization, congruence between self + experience, incongruence & defensive mechanisms (denial + distortion)

Comprehensiveness

theory fully explains and accounts for a wide variety of aspects in a phenomena

Parsimony

theory explains the phenomena in the simplest way so that it is understandable and can be generalized to many situations

5 areas personality theories should address

structure, process, growth & development, psychopathology, change

Structure

how is a personality is organized and how are its basic, enduring parts are connected and interact with each other?

Process

what motivates someone to do something?

Growth & development

how does personality develop?

Psychopathology

how do people cope with stress/anxiety?

Change

can personality change over time?

Bandwidth & example

theory explains a wide range of phenomena
(ex. A radio has a bunch of channels)

Fidelity & example

theory explains the specifics of the phenomena
(ex. When you try to listen to a channel within a radio, it is clear and easy to hear)

Bandwidth-fidelity trade-off

sometimes, you can’t have both strong bandwidth and fidelity in a theory, so theorists will have to choose which one they want their theory to be stronger in

What does the Prof John and traffic cop scenario show?

the traffic cop’s speed monitor is reliable because it shows Prof John speeding at 90 mph every time he speeds BUT it may not be a valid measurement for safety because Prof John claims that he is safe whilst driving 90 mph

How is the amniotic fluid test a fallible measurement?

you can’t actually measure exactly how much fluid is in the amniotic sac (unreliable); if you measure it multiple times, the amount will vary

Principle of aggregation & example

get a bunch of items/observations and average them to get a single aggregate/overall score
(ex. Instead of taking an exam with 1 question, where the only possible scores are 0% or 100%, it’s better to take an exam with 20 questions to get an accurate sense of how much a student has learned)

Example of the principle of aggregation

chicken oviduct story; single observations do not always capture the same results (unreliable), so you need to use 100 test tubes and average the results to account for those that are overestimations and underestimations

Reliability

how well the measurements/observations are stable across time, dependable, and replicable

Retest reliability & example

across time; how well the results of the same test given to the same people at different time points correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the same exam now and 2 weeks later)

Parallel test/alternate form reliability & example

across tests; how well one measure of the construct correlates to a similar measure of the same construct
(ex. A student should get the same score on form A as form B)

Split-half reliability/internal consistency & example

across items; how well the items within a measure correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score on the first 10 questions of the exam and on the last 10 questions of the exam)

Interjudge agreement reliability & example

across observers; how well the ratings of different observers correlate with each other
(ex. A student should get the same score when graded by different GSI’s)

How can we make sure our theory is valid?

use LOTS of different data sources/methods

What does LOTS stand for?

Life data, Observer data, Test data, Self data

Life data

life history & records
(ex. School, criminal, employment)

Pros and Cons of Life data

pros: objective, you can measure ‘real world’ outcomes
cons: no info on thoughts, feelings and why

Observer data

rating made by others (teachers, parents, peers, trained observers) that are data coded by researchers
(ex. Admin in the back of the class)

Pros and Cons of Observer data

pros: provides multiple perspectives, others may know you better than yourself, can be less biased than self data
cons: observer bias, issues can arise with interjudge reliability, situation & being observed may influence behavior

Test data

experiments, standardized/timed tests
(ex. SAT/ACT, marshmallow experiment)

Pros and Cons of Test data

pros: objective, can control/manipulate situation, measure causal relationship
cons: articifical settings can mess with validity and generalizability, demands characteristics that wouldn’t happen naturally, experimenter expectancy effects, some phenomena can’t be studied in the lab

Self data

questionnaires, interviews
(ex. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

Pros and Cons of Self data

pros: easy to get large samples & measure many variables at once, some phenomena can only be measured through Self data
cons: can’t claim casual relationships, people may not answer truthfully because of social desirability, people tend to agree with questions/statements

Validity

how well our measure actually measures what we want it to measure

Content validity

how well a measure comprehensively represents all facets of the construct

Criterion validity

how well a measure correlates with other measures on the same construct & how well it predicts future outcomes

Convergent/discriminant validity

how well a measure correlates with related measures & doesn’t correlate with unrelated measures

Pros and Cons of case studies & clinical research

pros: more natural settings, can study the full complexity of an individual
cons: unsystematic, subjective, no causal relationship

Pros and Cons of lab studies & experimental research

pros: manipulation of variables, objective, causal relationships
cons: some things can’t be studied in a lab, artificial settings pose issues for external validity/generalization, demand characteristics & experimenter expectancy effects

Pros and Cons of questionnaires & correlational research

pros: can study a wide variety of variables and their relationships, easily get large samples
cons: no causal relationships, self-reports have issues with validity + reliability, no in-depth studies of individuals

Nomothetic approach

use fixed measures that are applied and computed the same way for everyone to figure out common laws and principles that are generalizable for all individuals of a population

Pros and Cons of nomothetic approaches

pros: simple, easy to administer + analyze, objective
cons: items may be irrelevant, features of personality may not be included

Idiographic approach

use flexible measures that are tailored to an individual to get a full picture of the unique individual

Pros and Cons of idiographic approaches

pros: get more relevant info to the individual
cons: may need guided instructions for administering, more difficult and time-consuming to analyze

Longitudinal study

test the same individuals at multiple time points to see how their results have changed over time

4 problems with the ACL

(1) a lot of adjectives are applicable to most people (most people would say they’re ‘friendly’) so it’s not really meaningful
(2) some people check a bunch of boxes while some people check few boxes
(3) people go through it mindlessly without even thinking about it
(4) it’s unclear what it means when someone doesn’t check a box (NA or doesn’t understand)

Correlation

linear association between two variables from -1.00 to +1.00

Explain the meaning of a .40 correlation

strong correlation, usually seen in medical and social sciences; changes odds from 50/50 to 70/30 (40% increase)

Explain the meaning of a .30 correlation

typical correlation in research; changes odds from 50/50 to 65/35 (30% increase)

Explain the meaning of a .08 correlation

small correlation, but can be meaningful; aspirin has a .08 correlation for avoiding heart attack; changes odds from 50/50 to 54/46 (8% increase in not getting a heart attack)

Can you infer causation from correlation? & example

aw hell no! There may be confounding/3rd variables that may explain the correlation
(ex. Height & intelligence are correlated; good nutriention can lead to taller height and better brain development)

4 reasons for studying Freud

(1) he discovered new techniques (free association, dream interpretation, transference, projective tests) which informed subsequent research
(2) he had rich observations from in-depth case studies
(3) his theory led to more psychological theories as others built upon his work or made theories that went against his work (
4) he addressed topics central to the human experience that were not covered on other theories
(ex. Dreams, sexual desires, internal mental conflicts, infant psychological life)

Psychic determinism

theorizes that all mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious or preexisting mental complexes

Big 2 instincts and their evolutionary basis

sex & aggression; selfish gene (we wanna pass down our genes)

Why do humans have sexual & aggressive drives?

sex-linked with physical pleasure; aggression linked with survival

Conscious

thoughts and perceptions that are you actively thinking about

Pre-conscious

memories, stored knowledge that you can pull from when needed

Unconscious

fears, violence, unacceptable desires/impulses that you cannot access without the help of the trained professional

Dichotic listening task & example

listen to right ear (conscious listening) while a story plays in the left ear (unconscious listening); story on your left influences your perception of of the story on the right
(ex. River bank vs. money bank)

What does the dichotic listening task prove?

System 1 & 2 communicate with each other; System 1 sends unconscious messages from the left ear to the to System 2 while System 2 was consciously interpreting the right ear

Cocktail party phenomenon

our unconscious monitors the environment and pings the conscious when important info is found
(ex. Name, potential dangers, sex)

Verbal slips & example

slip of the tongue that is motivated by and reveals information from our unconscious; Freud believed this occurs when our unconscious interferes with our conscious thoughts
(ex. Tennis match “nice to ‘beat’ you!”)

Automatic vigilance example

Stroop color-interference paradigm: difficulty naming the color of a word when it doesn’t match the spelling of a word

Id

animalistic impulses, source of drive energy (sex, aggression, life, death), seeks to relieve immediate tension through the pleasure principle, satisfaction through action/imagination

Ego

satisfies the id with reality and the demands of the superego in mind like a balancing act (dynamic equilibrium), follow the reality principle

Superego

morals, ideals, rewards good behavior with pride/self-love and punishes bad behavior with guilt/inferiority, overly harsh & unrealistic, can be forgiving because of circumstances

Pleasure principle

pursue pleasure, avoid pain

Reality principle

delay gratification and uses reality to get the maximum pleasure and minimum pain

Primary process thinking & example

reflective habit, unconscious, illogical, can’t tell the difference between fantasy and reality, child-like, emotional, needs immediate gratification, used by the id to release tension and fulfill the pleasure principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to have sex with them)

Secondary process thinking & example

takes effort, conscious, logical, tests reality, develops over time, used by ego to fulfill the reality principle
(ex. Seeing an attractive person at the grocery store and wanting to ask them on a date)

System 1

(1) evolutionary older, limbic system
(2) fast but inaccurate
(3) effortless
(4) automatic;
falls under unconscious primary process thinking

System 2

(1) evolutionary newer, brain cortex
(2) slow but detailed
(3) takes effort and uses limited capacity
(4) can be controlled and therefore changed;
falls under conscious secondary process thinking

Freud’s psychosexual vs. Erikson psychosocial stages of development

Oral stage

ages 0-1, fixation in mouth area, sucking instinct; same time as Trust vs Mistrust

Anal stage

ages 2-3; fixation on anus, conflict between retention and expulsion, learning self-control; same time as Autonomy vs Shame

Phallic stage

ages 4-5, fixated on genitals, Oedipus/Electra complex; same time as Initiative vs Guilt

Latent stage

6-adolescence, sexual/aggressive tendencies are dormant/hidden/repressed, focus on asexual forces (school, friendships, etc.); same time as Industry vs Inferiority

Genital stage

adolescence, onset of puberty, Freud's final stage where people reach ‘maturity’,; same time as Ego Identity vs Role Confusion

Trust vs Mistrust

ages 0-1, learn if primary caregivers are trustworthy, responsive parenting; same time as Oral stage

Autonomy vs Shame

ages 2-3, learning independence, patient parenting vs restrictive parenting; same time as Anal stage

Initiative vs Guilt

ages 4-5, taking satisfaction in accomplishments, actions begin to have purpose, developing sense of right and wrong; same time as Phallic stage

Industry vs Inferiority

6-adolescence, developing competence, learning skills to be a successful member of society; same time as Latent stage

Ego Identity vs Role Confusion

adolescence, developing an identity; same time as Genital stage

Intimacy vs Isolation

early adulthood, finding a partner

Generativity vs. Stagnation

middle adulthood, giving back to the next generation

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

late adulthood, looking back to see if life was fulfilling

Why do we like Erikson’s psychosocial stages better than Freud’s psychosexual stages?

included both biological + social forces, addressed entire life cycle

Marcia’s identity statuses

Achievement

commitment with exploration

In moratorium

no commitment with exploration

Foreclosure

commitment without exploration

Diffusion

no commitment and no exploration

Harlow’s monkeys

monkeys chose cloth mother over metal milk mother, suggesting the need for physical contact and closeness; evidence against Freud’s oral stage of development

Fixation

when a person becomes preoccupied with themes related to a certain erogenous zone; no evidence for this
(ex. People who weren’t breastfed don’t all end up as smokers)

Regression

returning to an earlier stage based on a fixation; usually happens when people are stressed/frustrated/anxious