General Biology Review Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key biological concepts, chemical foundations, cell organelle functions, cellular respiration, and photosynthetic pathways based on lecture notes.

Periodic Table Element Entry

Diagram showing the standard pieces of information for an element on the periodic table: atomic number ($1$), symbol ($\text{H}$), relative atomic mass ($1.01$), and element name (Hydrogen).

Biology

The scientific study of life, focusing on the structure and function of living organisms.

Scientific Method

A systematic process involving observation, asking questions, forming a hypothesis, making predictions, performing experiments, and analyzing results.

Hypothesis

A suggested explanation for an event that can be tested through experimentation.

Matter

Any material substance that takes up space and has mass.

Element

A pure chemical substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

Atom

The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical characteristics of that element, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that contain the same fixed number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Valence Shell

The outermost electron shell of an atom, containing electrons that dictate chemical bonding and reactivity.

Hydrogen Bond (Water)

Weak electrical attractions formed between polar water molecules, distinguished from intramolecular covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed when opposite electrical charges attract atoms to one another after electron transfer.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share pairs of valence electrons.

Solvent

A dissolving agent or liquid chemical in which other substances (solutes) dissolve to form a solution.

Solute

A substance that is dissolved into a solvent to produce a solution.

Acid

A chemical compound that donates or releases hydrogen ions ($\text{H}^+$) into a solution, lowering its pH.

Base

A chemical compound that accepts hydrogen ions ($\text{H}^+$) and removes them from a solution, raising its pH.

Buffer

A chemical substance that resists drastic shifts in pH by accepting excess $\text{H}^+$ ions or donating them when depleted.

Organic Molecule

A chemical compound that contains both carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Dehydration Reaction

A chemical synthesis reaction that joins monomers into polymers by removing a molecule of water.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks polymers into individual monomers by inserting a water molecule.

Amino Acid Structure

The structural framework of protein monomers consisting of a central carbon, an amino group ($-\text{NH}_2$), a carboxyl group ($-\text{COOH}$), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain (R group).

Peptide Bond

A covalent bond linking amino acid monomers together to build polypeptide chains.

Saturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid hydrocarbon chain fully saturated with hydrogen atoms, allowing tight molecular packing and a solid state at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid hydrocarbon chain containing one or more double bonds, preventing tight packing and maintaining a liquid state at room temperature.

Cell Theory

The core biological doctrine stating that cells are the basic functional unit of life, all living organisms consist of cells, and all new cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Structural distinction between simpler, smaller prokaryotic cells lacking a nucleus/internal organelles, and larger, complex eukaryotic cells containing membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell Organelle Roles

Diagram illustrating cellular organelle functions through functional analogies, such as nucleus (control center), mitochondria (powerhouses), and cell membrane (security gate).

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A membrane network studded with ribosomes near the nucleus that synthesizes secretory and membrane proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A membrane region lacking ribosomes that specializes in lipid synthesis.

Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell Structures

Diagram showing unique structural components of plant cells—such as the rigid outer cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuole—that are absent in animal cells.

Diffusion

The passive net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

Osmosis

The passive diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane down its concentration gradient.

Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways

Illustration of metabolic processes: anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from small ones, whereas catabolic pathways break down large molecules to release energy.

Activation Energy ($E_a$)

The initial investment of energy required to destabilize bonds and trigger a chemical reaction.

Induced Fit Model of Enzyme Action

Process diagram showing a substrate entering an enzyme's active site, causing the enzyme to alter its shape slightly upon binding to form an enzyme/substrate complex before forming products.

Denaturation

The structural unfolding of a protein beyond its primary structure due to extreme pH or temperature, leading to complete loss of function.

Feedback Inhibition

A cell regulatory mechanism where the accumulated final product of a pathway inhibits an enzyme early in the metabolic pathway.

Autotroph

An organism capable of synthesizing its own organic nutrients from simple inorganic materials using environmental energy.

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot synthesize organic compounds from inorganic materials and must obtain energy by consuming organic matter.

Overview of Cellular Respiration

Diagram showing the major stages of aerobic respiration: Glycolysis in the cytoplasm, followed by the Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport Chain in the mitochondria.

Macromolecules in Cellular Respiration

Flowchart showing entry points of diverse nutrients into cellular respiration: carbohydrates/glycerol into Glycolysis, fatty acids into Pyruvate Oxidation, and amino acids into the Citric Acid Cycle.

ATP Synthase

A membrane-bound protein complex that uses the kinetic flow of $\text{H}^+$ ions down their electrochemical gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP.

Active Transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring cellular energy expenditure.

Leaf and Chloroplast Structure

Anatomical overview showing leaf tissue layers (mesophyll, stomata) and chloroplast internal structures including the stroma, grana, and thylakoid membranes.

Stomata

Microscopic pores found on leaf surfaces that regulate gas exchange, allowing carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to exit.

Photosynthetic Pigment Absorption Spectra

Absorption graph detailing how photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, and Carotenoids) absorb specific wavelengths of light.

Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle Interconnection

Diagram illustrating how light-dependent reactions in thylakoids split water to produce ATP, NADPH, and $\text{O}_2$, driving sugar production in the Calvin cycle.

Carbon Fixation

The initial conversion process of inorganic atmospheric carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$) into organic compounds during the Calvin cycle.