Psych-module 22 & 23 memory: encoding, storage, retrieval

What is memory?

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

How do we measure memory retention?

• recall: a measure of memory where the person retrieves information learned earlier as on a fill in the blank test

• recognition: a measure of memory where the person identifies information previously learned as on a multiple choice test

• relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

What are the three processes involved in the information processing model?

• encoding

• storage

• retrieval

Connectionism information processing model

focuses on parallel processing which means the processing of multiple aspects of a problem simultaneously

ex. views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

What are the three memory processes in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

• sensory memory

• short-term memory

• long-term memory

Sensory memory

The first step in recording to-be-remembered information

• brief and fleeting

• records sensory information

Short-term memory

The second step where we process information into short term memory

• holds a few items briefly

• 30 seconds

• quickly forgotten

ex. remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it

Long-term memory

the final step that occurs after we have encoded information

• permanent and limitless storage

• knowledge, skills, experience

• used for later retrieval

Working memory

occurs during short-term memory and involves newer understanding of the short-term memory through conscious and active processing of the information that often involves updating the information

ex. these short-term memories can become long-term

ex. playing chess

Explicit memory

• conscious

• effortful processing

• declarative memory

• memory of facts and experiences

Implicit memory

• “how to” memory

• automatic processing

• retention of learned skills

• unconscious

• nondeclarative memory

ex. how to ride a bike

Sensory memory

feeds our active working memory, recording momentary images of scenes or echoes of sounds through either iconic or echoic means

ex. occurs through the senses

Iconic memory

type of sensory memory

anything related to visual stimulation

lasting for less than a second

Echoic memory

type of sensory memory

anything related to auditory information

lasting for 30 seconds

What is the short-term memory capacity?

holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a
phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten

Without distraction, how much information can we typically recall?

seven digits or about six letters or five words

Spacing effect

encoding is more effective when it is spread over time

Distributed practice

a method that produces better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

ex. study is spread out over time

Massed practice

an ineffective method that produces speedy short-term learning and feelings of confidence

ex. cramming for an exam

Testing effect

enhanced memory occurs after retrieving, rather than simply re-reading information 

What are the levels of processing information?

• shallow processing

• deep processing

Shallow processing

encodes on both a basic (word’s letters) and intermediate (word’s sound) level

involves repeating information

Deep processing 

encodes semantically based on the word’s meaning

has better retention and involves understanding the information and making comparisons between concepts

Self-reference effect

the tendency for good recall of information we can relate too

What information do we encode more easily?

information that is meaningful or related to our experiences

Can we fill more information within our brains if we discard others?

no, long-term storage of memories is essentially limitless

How does the brain store memories?

the brain distributes the components of a memory across a network of locations in the brain

How are the brain cells involved in memories?

some of the cells that fired when we experienced something fire again when we recall it

What are the two explicit types of memory involved in memory storage?

• episodic memory

• semantic memory

Episodic memory

a type of explicit memory

memory of personally experienced events

ex. related to episodes within our life

Semantic memory

type of explicit memory

memory of facts and general knowledge

ex. not related to specific events i.e. how old you are

Hippocampus

registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage.

The cerebellum 

plays important role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning 

Basal ganglia

brain structures involved in implicit memories like motor movement and formation of our procedural memories for skills

Infantile amnesia

we cannot remember any information from the first three years of our lives because our hippocampus was not fully developed

Flashbulb memories

clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events that occur via emotion triggered hormonal changes

ex. vivid and almost picture-like

Memory consolidation

neural storage of long-term memories

ex. the process by which short-term memories become long-term memories

Amygdala

the brain center that is triggered by excitement or stress to engage memory

ex. engaged by emotions

Which type of memories are generally shared by a generation?

flashbulb memories

Memories are held in storage by what?

web of associations

What are the best retrieval cues?

those that come from associations formed at the time a memory was encoded

Priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

ex. dropping cues that prepare your brain to respond in a certain way

ex. hearing the word yellow and when asked to name some fruit, you say a banana

What are the different memories for retrieval cues?

• context dependent

• state dependent

Context dependent memory

involves improved recall of information when the context is the same for both encoding and retrieval

ex. context matches

State dependent memory

emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues

ex. you will remember information easier when you are experiencing the same emotions as you were when memory was formed

Mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are the same as one’s current good or bad mood

ex. girlfriend remembers boyfriend cheating when she is in bad mood

Serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items within a list