Unit Four: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

scientific revolution

scientific revolution

brought about a dissolution of the medieval worldview and led to new discoveries in science and mathematics, fundamentally changing the approach to understanding the natural world.

geocentric/ptolemaic conception

the universe was seen as series of concentric spheres with fixed or motionless earth at the center. circular motion. sun rotatated around the earth. heaven was after the tenth sphere.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

astronomer and mathematician who presented a heliocentric system of the universe. published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. believed planets orbited Sun (up to Saturn) and moon revolved around the earth, which rotated on its axis. created uncertainty over God- disliked by Protestants and Catholics.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Danish nobleman who build Uraniborg Castle with observatories and astronomical tools. compiled detailed data on observations of positions and movements of stars and planets for 20 years. led him to reject Ptolemaic system but couldn’t accept theory that the earth moved. greatly influenced Kepler.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

astronomer and mathematician who created three laws of planetary motion that confirmed Copernicus’ heliocentric model. influenced by Brahe. into hermetic math magic. disproved Ptolemaic system.

first law of planetary motion

orbits of planets around sun are elliptical not circular (disproving Copernicus a little bit)

second law of planetary motion

speed of a planet is greater when closer to the sun and lesser when further away. rejected the idea that planetary motion = steady and unchanging.

third law of planetary motion

planets with larger orbits revolve at slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

the first European to make systematic observations of the heavens using a telescope. Ushered in a new age of astronomy. The Starry Messenger. pro-heliocentrism. targeted by Catholic Church. defense of Copernican system. forced to recant. changed views on motion and inertia.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Laws of motion. Principia. studied alchemy. explained universal law of gravitation. changed the way we see color and calculus. explained all the motion in the universe.

factors leading to scientific revolution

1. rise of universities

2. contact with non-western societies

3. the Renaissance

4. the Reformation

5. exploration

Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720)

most famous German female astronomer. married Germany’s best astronomer and became his assistant. discovered a comet. had issues with Berlin Academy.

Querelles des Femme

arguments about the nature and value of women.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

father of modern rationalism. super important figure in western history. created a philosophy that dominated western thought until 20c. had a vision of a new rational-mathematical system. said he’d only accept that which his reason said were true. focused on deduction.

cartesian dualism

absolute duality between mind and body. using mind or human reason (path to certain knowledge) and math (bes tinstrument) → humans can understand the material world because it is a pure mechanism. separation of mind and matter let scientists see matter as ‘dead’ and separate from themselves.

rationalism

Descartes = father. idea that human beings could understand the world (a mechanical system) by the same rational perspective as they saw math.

Scientific Method

the proper means to examine and understand the physical world

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

tried to put forward a scientific method built on inductive principles. start with particular _> general. wanted science to benefit industry, ag, and trade. used empiricism and was one of the first European writers to champion innovation as contributing to human improvement.

Galen

late medieval scholar who dominated medical teachings until the scientific revolution. teachings affected anatomy, physiology, and disease. believed in two separate blood systems. four humors.

four humors

predominant medical theory about what caused illness. created by Galen. blood (warm and moist), yellow bile (warm and dry), phlegm (cold and moist), black bile (cold and dry)

Paracelsus (1493-1541)

father of modern medicine. physician and professor of medicine who rejected the chemical philosophies of Aristotle and Galen. believed chemical reactions in humans were on a smaller scale- not caused by 4 humors but chemical imbalances in specific organs.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

scientist who changed understanding of anatomy based on personal dissections. fixed Galen’s mistakes.

William Harvey

proved that blood flow was the same, not in two systems, and that blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body. laid foundation for modern physiology.

Robert Boyle

first scientist to conduct controlled experiments. properties of gas. proved volume of gas varies with pressure and chemical elements were little particles of all shapes and sizes.

Margaret Cavendish

wrote a number of works but her main ones were observations upon experimental philosophy and grounds of natural philosophy. criticized rationalist approaches to science.

Maria Merian

wrote Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam, which contained 60 illustrations to show reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam’s insect life

Benedict of Spinoza (1631-1627)

philosopher who discussed the separation of mind and mater and the separation of infinite God from the finite world of matter—saw God as the universe and the reason for all. believed human emotions should be studied like the movement of the planets and that everything has rational explanations. reason is how people find happiness.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

French scientist who sought the unity of religion and science. invented the calculating machine and devised theory of chance/probability and work on conic sections. devoted rest of life to religion and tried to convert rationalists to Christ by appealing to reason and emotions.

Charles de Secondat: Montesquieu (1689-1755)

created separation of powers. used books to criticize French institutions, including the Catholic Church and the monarchy. tried to figure out natural laws of human social relationships. created system to figure out what type of government was best for states based on size and need.

themes of Enlightenment:

attack on traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, anti-slavery, and using reason to liberate humans from their prejudices

Voltaire (1694-1778)

greatest figure of the Englightenment. hailed as a successor to Racine. loved the English—their freedom of teh press, political freedom, and religious toleration. loved religious toleration. pro Deism. very influential— overturned Calas conviction.

Deism

suggested the existence of a mechanic God who created the universe and let it run according to natural laws

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

created the Encyclopedia, which became a major weapon of the philosophes. attacked religious superstition, and was pro toleration. advocated program for social, legal and political improvements that would lead to a more cosmopolitan, reasonable, tolerant and humane society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

creator of the social contract. thought people should sacrifice some of their own interests for the greater good. believed humans were essentially good. government was evil but needed. focused on common good→ liberty.

Mary Wollstonecraft

founder of feminism. pulled from Englightnment idea that reason = innate, and therefore women have reason and are entitled to equal rights

David Hume

led to broader understanding of human nature. pioneering social scientist who systematized common sense through careful examination of experiences that constituted human life.

Enlightenment

new intellectual and social movement. advocated application of scientific methods. focused on reason, natural law, hope, and progress. saw everything as subject to rational, scientific thinking.

Bernard de Fontanelle

secretary of French Royal Academy. possessed deep knowledge of all scientific work from past and present and led to more communication about bodies of science to the public.

Skepticism

movement that portrayed churches as enemies of social progress. more people began to question religious truths/values based on the scientific revolution.

Pierre Bayle

attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. viewed monarchs who force religious ideas as wrong. argued for complete religious toleration and created the idea of hypocrisy.

philosophes

literary people and social reformers. questioned traditions and wanted to improve humanity. focused on reform of religion, political thought, society, government and the economy for the sake of human liberty. ex: Voltaire

empiricism

use of experiments and observation derived from sensory evidence to construct scientific theory or philosophy of knowledge

3 major issues between science and religion:

1. certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with scripture

2. who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers?

3. new science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one

new methods of finance

1. public and private banks

2. acceptance of paper notes

3. increased credit

4. idea of national debt created

5. commercial capitalism grew

6. integrated markets and joint-stock companies became big

7. rise of Atlantic trade which led to wealth for port cities

8. African slave trade

9. rise in specific industries, like textile manufacturing

cottage industry

used traditional manufacturing methods and spread to Europe. entrepreneurs gave rural workers raw materials, who then created manufactured products, which the entrepreneurs sold for a profit.

flying shuttle

new industrial technology. sped up the process of weaving on a loom.

water frame

new industrial technology. turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels.

basic ideas of Enlightenment

1. natural reason and science can explain all aspects of life. humans should rely on reason, not religion, to improve society

2. scientific method can explain laws of society. natural laws can be discovered by human reason

3. progress. creation of a better society and people was possible

4. happiness. inalienable right. people should not accept misery in order to find salvation

5. liberty. advocated for removing restrictions on speech, government, and trade. intellectual freedom was a natural right and freedom of expression was necessary for progress.

6. toleration. religious beliefs that promoted superstition, intolerance and bigotry should be questioned.

Roots of the Enlightenment

1. ideas of Isaac Newton:

   1. law of universal graviation

   2. encouraged natural philosophers to approach nature directly

2. ideas of John Locke:

   1. tabula rasa

   2. experience shapes caharacter

   3. social contract: state originated in the consent of the governed

   4. society is composed of individuals driven by self-interest

3. print culture:

   1. led to challenging of tradition

   2. created idea of public opinion

John Locke

1. tabula rasa (humans are born with a blank slate)

2. believed experience shapes character, which rejected the Christian notion that sin permanently flaws humans

3. humans can take charge of their own destiny

4. conceived of society as composed of individuals driven by self-interest

5. argued that the state originated in the consent of the governed (social contract) rather than divine right or tradition

public opinion

the collective effect on political and social life of views discussed in the home workplace, and places of leisure

The Encyclopédie

perhaps greatest and most representative work of philosophes. popularized their views. emphasized science and reason, criticized religion, intolerance, injustice and tyranny, and aimed to secularize learning and undermine intellectual assumptions from the Middle Ages and Reformation.

salon

one of the new institutions that explored and disseminated Enlightnement culture. like if a living room was a coffeehouse. also how women got involved in the Enlightenment.

Baron d’Holbach (1723-89)

argued humans are essentially like machines, wholly determined by outside forces (ie determinism). his atheism, determinism and attacks on Christianity undermined the Enlightenment

Beccaria

reformer of criminal law. spoke out against torture and capital punishment, wanted speedy trials, and believed the purpose of punishment should be to deter further crimes. the purpose of laws is to secure the greatest good/happiness for as many people as possible.

Physiocrats

economic reformers in France led by Francois Quesnay. believed the primary role of government was to protect property and allow its owners to use it freely. believed the economy would benefit from individuals being allowed to compete for their own self-interests. anti-mercantilism.

Adam Smith

economic reformer who wrote the Wealth of Nations. believed people often acted in their own self-interest, especially in economic matters, which unintentionally benefitted others in society through the invisible hand and laws of supply and demand. disagreed with mercantilism and believed free trade was best. founder of laissex faire economic thought.

laissex faire economic thought

limited role of government in the economy. government attempts to control, plan or direct the production of goods and services will probably fail. markets allow people to use and trade their skills, talents, knowledge, and labor freely. creates spontaneous order.

enlightened critics of european empires

few philosophers criticized Europeans on moral grounds:

1. conquest of the Americas

2. treatment of Native Americans

3. enslavement of Africans

basic ideas from Enlightenment critics

1. humans deserve some modicum of moral and political respect just because they’re human

2. different cultures should be respected and understood, not destroyed

3. people may develop distinct cultures with intrinsic values and canot be compared to each other

legacy of the Enlightenment

1. the democratic revolutions that begun in America in 1776 and that continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and Paris in the late 1780s put every western government on the defensive

2. reform, democracy and republicanism were in the west for good

3. new forms of civil society arose: salons, clubs, fraternities, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/sci organizations

4. 19c conservatives blamed it for. themoern ‘egalitarian disease’

5. the individual, in theory with full civil and legal rights, had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with

causes of European population growth in the 18th century

1. decline in death rate

2. more food

3. introduction of American crops → corn and potatoes

4. end of bubonic plague

5. decline in unmarried women

prigmogeniture

eldest son receives the larget share of the estate and is treated as the favorite. limited to upperclass. attacked.

factors that contributed to increase of food production

1. livestock increase

2. enhanced food production

3. greater vegetable yields

4. new agricultural techniques

Andrea Palladio

16c Venetian architect who specialized in design of country vilas. emphasized serenity and sedateness. major influence for aristocratic estates during this period.

societal hierarchy

1. patrician oligarchs

2. middle class

3. lower middle class

4. working class

5. unskilled workers

grand tour

trend where sons of aristocrates completed their education via a tour of major european cities