applications of psychology to health

selyes definition of stress

the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change

distress (selye)

o Negative psychological response to a stressor which impedes an individual's ability to perform at an optimal level

o Leads to unpleasant emotional states such as anger, anxiety, nervousness, tension

o Generates physical and psychological harm

eustress (selye)

o Positive psychological response to a stressor associated with situations found challenging but within coping abilities

o Leads to pleasant emotional states such as enthusiasm, motivation, alertness or engagement

o If intense or prolonged, it can shift to distress

stressor

o Any stimulus which challenges or threatens a person and causes stress, type and intensity varying between individuals

internal stressor

originating within the individual, psychological, e.g. personal problem causing concern about consequences

external stressor

originating from outside the individual, situations and events, environmental, social and cultural e.g. having too much homework, being threatened by someone physically

psychological stressor

o Originating from internal thoughts or behaviours coming from an individual's mindset, expectations or personal circumstances

o E.g. anxiety, comparing self to others, pessimism

social stressor

o Originating from social relationships and interactions with others

o E.g. rudeness, bullying, breakups

environmental stressor

o Originating from the external environment or events occuring in the physical surroundings of an individual

o E.g. noise, pollution, natural disasters

Cultural Stressor

o Originating from cultural beliefs and practices being different from the society in which an individual lives

o E.g. accents, discrimination, religious beliefs

characteristics of stressors

nature, duration, strength

nature + 3 factors

o Controllability of a stressor/perceived ability to be able to control a situation

§ Importance

§ Predictability

§ Number

duration

length of time that a stressor persists and remains present

acute, chronic

acute stressor

short term, activate the bodies immediate response to stress e.g. missing a deadline at work

chronic stressor

long term and ongoing demands, can have cumulative effects on wellbeing and affect multiple aspects of a persons life e.g. toxic relationships

strength

higher intensity of stressors = higher level of stress

manifests as heightened physiological arousal, emotional distress, cognitive strain

e.g. sudden and unexpected job loss is highly intense

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

three-stage process which describes the body's response/resistance to stress over time to attempt to alleviate the impact of stress

1) alarm

2) resistance

3) exhaustion

GAS model - alarm stage

initial defensive fight-flight response to a stressor, 2 substages, shock, countershock

e.g. increased heart rate and blood pressure, rapid breathing, muscle tension, and heightened senses

alarm stage - shock

during/after exposure, stress resistance falls below normal levels, body acts as if injured, momentarily reducing the ability to deal with stressors

alarm stage - countershock

sympathetic nervous system is activated, the body's resistance to the stressor increases

GAS model - resistance stage

if stress can be overcome/stressful situation is no longer present, the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to homeostasis (heart and breathing rate return to normal)

if stressor persists, the body will enter a state of resistance, attempting to adapt; physiological arousal levels will stay high, and the immune system is suppressed

e.g. irritability, frustration, poor concentration, difficulty with short-term memory, headaches, stomachaches, and muscle tension

GAS model - exhaustion stage

if a stressor is severe and chronic, the body is unable to adapt, so physical, emotional and mental resources are depleted, leading to reduced ability to resist,

e.g. high blood pressure, anxiety, fatigue

selye strenghts

· Supported with empirical evidence

· First to highlight stress has major impact on immune system

selye limitations

· Too much emphasis on the biology of stress response

· Does not take into account the important psychological factors that explain the subjective stress experience of individuals

selye applications

Healthcare - Explains how long-term stress can weaken the immune system, cause illness, and contribute to burnout in patients or medical staff.

Workplace - Used in job stress management to prevent employees from reaching exhaustion.

Education - Helps explain student burnout from prolonged exam pressure or heavy workloads.

Sports - Guides training and recovery schedules to avoid overtraining and fatigue.

holmes and rahe social readjustment scale

o Views stress as a significant life event or change which demands response, adjustment or adaptation.

o Self-report measure which assigns 43 life events/changes numerical values to quantify their impact on the last 12 months against the likelihood of developing a stress-related illness

o Based on the idea that events requiring major life changes are stressful

o Scoring

§ Less than 150 = low risk

§ 150-300 = 50% chance of health breakdown

§ More than 300 = 80% change of breakdown within 2 years

holmes and rahe strengths

Standardised measure - SRRS provides a consistent, quantifiable way to assess life stress.

Cross-cultural consistency - Agreement on event rankings across different cultures.

holmes and rahe limitations

Ignores individual differences

treats people as passive recipients of stress with no role in interpretation.

Does not account for coping skills, support networks, prior experience, or personality.

Overlooks daily hassles and chronic stressors which can also impact health.

holmes and rahe applications

Health risk assessment - Used to estimate a person's susceptibility to stress-related illness.

Clinical screening - Helps psychologists and doctors identify patients at higher health risk.

Workplace wellbeing - Can inform stress management programs and employee support.

Research - Used in studies linking life stress to mental health, immunity, and physical illness.

transactional model of stress and coping (lazarus and folkman)

proposes that stress involves an encounter (transaction) between an individual and their environment, depending on 2 psychological factors which determine the extent to which an event is stressful

- The meaning of the event to the individual

- The individual's judgement of their ability to cope with it (appraisal)

appraisal

an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus

types of stress according to lazarus

harm, threat, challenge

harm as a type of stress

something bad has already occurred, e.g. loss of a loved one

threat as a type of stress

it is expected that something bad will occur soon e.g. exams coming up when you haven't studied

challenge as a type of stress

a situation which is manageable, similar to eustress e.g. A student being selected to represent their school in a national debating competition

primary appraisal

initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful, evaluating the significance, whether it is relevant, and whether it will benefit or cause harm to the person

if irrelevant or benign/positive, the stressor is discared

if deemed stressful, it will either be a harm, threat or a challenge

secondary appraisal

the second step in assessing a threat, which involves evaluating the coping options and resources available to deal with the stress

if there is adequate resources to cope, the stressor is discarded/solved

if there are inadequate resources, this leads to stress

lazarus and folkman strengths

Considers individual differences in perception and coping.

Explains why the same event can affect people differently.

Highlights the dynamic interaction between person and environment.

lazarus and folkman limitations

Difficult to measure subjective appraisal objectively.

May underestimate physiological factors in stress.

Less applicable to sudden, intense stressors with little time for appraisal.

Focuses on conscious thought, not unconscious responses.

lazarus and folkman applications

Clinical psychology - Tailoring coping strategies to the individual.

Workplace - Designing programs to change how stressors are appraised.

Health promotion - Teaching reappraisal and problem-solving.

Education - Helping students view stressors (e.g., exams) as challenges rather than threats.

problem-based coping

Aims to change or eliminate the source of your stress. works if you have some control over the situation that is causing your stress e.g. creating a study schedule

emotion-based coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction, helpful in situations which you have no control over the source of your stress e.g. seeking social support

consequences of stress

acute

o Headaches, heart rate increase, difficulty breathing

o Anxiety, irritability, avoidance behaviours

chronic

o Sleeping difficulties, changes in appetite, headaches, stomach pain, rashes

o Anxiety, depression, lack of interest/motivation

adaptive coping

Positive ways of dealing with stress. Empower you to change a stressful situation or adjust your emotional response to stress. e.g. talking to a friend for support and making a plan to solve a problem.

maladaptive coping

Negative ways of dealing with stress, may temporarily distract you from stress, but can eventually lead to physical or emotional harm. e.g. Avoiding the problem by drinking alcohol or procrastinating, which makes stress worse.

sleep

a reversible behavioural state of perceptual disengagement from the environment, and unresponsiveness to the environment

reversible behavioural state

sleep is not permanent, you can change from sleep to wakefulness

perceptual disengagement

during sleep, your senses are not actively processing the environment around you

unresponsiveness to the environment

while sleeping, you do not respond to external stimuli in the same way as when you are awake, e.g. not reacting when someone is talking to you

REM

o Rapid-eye movement (beneath closed eyelids)

o Most dreaming occurs here

NREM

o Non-rapid-eye movement

o Increasingly deeper sleep

restoration theory of sleep + evidence

o Sleep provides 'time out' to help us recover from depleting activities during waking time which use up the body's physical and mental resources

o E.g. neurotransmitters which have been used up, damaged cells to be repaired, muscles to be detoxified

evidence

- people sleep more when sick

- some immunity hormones only produced during REM

restorative functions of REM

§ Brain development

§ Exercising neurons/neural pathways (since synapses can deteriorate if they go too long being inactive)

§ Consolidation (processing and storage) of new memories

restorative functions of NREM

§ Restoring and repairing the body

§ E.g. physical growth, tissue repair, recovery from the effects of fatigue

evolutionary theory of sleep

o Emphasizes relationships between sleep and circadian rhythms (24-hour biological cycles)

o Sleep has evolved for survival by protecting an organism, making it inactive during 'risky' parts of the day (nighttime)

o Once survival functions are fulfilled, organisms must conserve energy

circadian rhythms

The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.

4 stages of sleep

REM, NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3

causes of sleep deprivation

shift work

drugs

sleep environment

stressors

sleep deprivation

a state caused by inadequate quantity or quality of sleep,

including voluntary or involuntary sleeplessness and circadian rhythm sleep disorders

effect of shift work on sleep deprivation

o Circadian rhythm/sleep cycle gets disrupted when individuals work early or late hours

o Rotating/irregular hours make it difficult to establish a consistent sleep schedule

o Daytime sleep (night shift workers) is often lighter and fragmented

effect of drugs on sleep deprivation

o Stimulants like caffeine and nicotine can make it difficult to fall or stay asleep

o Alcohol may disrupt the sleep cycle

o Recreational drugs like cocaine will disrupt sleep patterns

effect of sleep environment on sleep deprivation/ factors of sleep environment

noise

light

temperature

bedding

effect of stressors on sleep deprivation

o Anxiety and psychological stress make it difficult to relax and fall asleep, chronic stress can lead to prolonged disturbance

o Major life events such as job loss, relationship issues or financial problems may increase stress

o Physical stress, pain and discomfort can make it difficult to sleep through the night

partial sleep deprivation

sleep duration that is greater than zero but less than the recommended amount.

impacts of partial sleep deprivation

mood

reflex speed

attention

vision

impact of partial sleep deprivation on mood (psychological)

§ Increased irritability/mood swings

§ Heightened emotional sensitivity/susceptibility to stress

impact of partial sleep deprivation on reflex speed (physiological)

§ Slower reflexes and response time

§ Decreased alertness leading to impaired motor skills

impact of partial sleep deprivation on attention (psychological)

§ Reduced attention span/difficulty maintaining focus

§ Increased likelihood of making errors or omissions

§ Reduced ability to perform complex/logical reasoning

impact of partial sleep deprivation on vision (physiological)

§ Dry, itchy, bloodshot eyes (cannot heal through sleep)

§ Eye twitches and spasms, light sensitivity, blurry vision

§ Increased eye strain

chronic sleep deprivation

Not getting enough sleep over an extended period of time, persists for 3 months+

impacts of chronic sleep deprivation

cardiovascular disease

obesity

insomnia

mental health disorders/anxiety

cardiovascular disease (as a result of chronic sleep deprivation)

§ Hypertension/high blood pressure

§ Heart disease

§ Increased risk of heart attacks and strokes

§ Disruption of heart rate and rhythm

obesity (as a result of chronic sleep deprivation)

§ Altered metabolism, people consume more calories when they do not get enough sleep

§ Increased cravings + disruption of hormones regulating hunger

insomnia (as a result of chronic sleep deprivation)

§ Individuals struggling to fall or stay asleep, or establish healthy sleep routines

§ Increase stress and anxiety around sleep

§ Higher risk of pain, leading to further sleep interruptions

mental health disorders (as a result of chronic sleep deprivation)

§ Increased levels of stress

§ Higher risk of developing anxiety disorders

sleep hygiene

The practice of following good sleep habits to sleep soundly and be alert during the day

techniques to improve sleep hygiene

- management of electronic devices

- consistent sleep patterns

- creation of a healthy sleep environment

Management of electronic devices as a technique to improve sleep hygiene

§ Bright screens stimulate brain and keep us awake, interfering with circadian rhythms

§ 2 or more hours of screentime can disrupt the melatonin surge required to fall asleep

§ Turn off all electronics 30mins to an hour before bed (or lowering brightness)

Consistent sleep patterns as a technique to improve sleep hygiene

§ Going to sleep and waking up at the same time each day to maintain a rhythm and make body have something to work from

creation of a healthy sleep environment as a technique to improve sleep hygiene

§ Quiet and comfortable environment with good bedding and cool enough temperature required for healthy sleep

§ Curtains or eye masks used to block out light and earplugs to drown out noise

He et al., 2020, characteristics of theory

Phone = blue light + brain stimulation → delays sleep + lowers melatonin.

Links to arousal theory (phone keeps brain alert) + working memory theory (bad sleep = worse cognition).

He et al., 2020, aim

o Assess the effects of restricting mobile phone use before bedtime on sleep, pre-sleep arousal, mood and working memory

He et al., 2020, method

o 38 participants

o halved and randomized into either Intervention group (avoid their mobile phones 30 minutes before bedtime) or Control group

o Sleep habit, sleep quality, pre-sleep arousal and mood were measured using

§ Sleep diary/log

§ Pittsburgh sleep quality index

§ Pre-sleep arousal scale

§ Positive and negative affect schedule

o Working memory was tested using the n-back task

§ Participants shown sequence of stimuli and asked to identify stimulus which was presented 'n' number of items before

He et al., 2020, findings

No phones before bed for 4 weeks =

Fell asleep quicker (↓ latency)

Slept longer (↑ duration)

Better quality sleep

↓ pre-sleep arousal

↑ positive mood

↑ working memory

He et al., 2020, conclusion

Phone restriction = better sleep + better brain.

Recommend moderation, especially for people with sleep problems.

He et al., 2020, contributions

Simple, effective intervention for sleep issues.

Could be used as adjunct treatment (if people are motivated).

He et al., 2020, criticisms

o Sleep measurement - used self-report measures only

o Participant attitudes - both groups already believed bedtime phone use disturbs sleep, results may not generalize to those who lack motivation to restrict their phone use

o Small sample size limits interpretation of results

REM sleep state

§ Internal functioning is more active, people sleeping looks relaxed

REM heart rate

§ Faster and more irregular than NREM

REM eye movement

§ Spontaneous bursts of rapid eye movement

REM muscle tension

§ Occasionally twitching, most muscles are limp

§ Appear paralyzed to observers

REM length

§ 20-25% of total time

NREM 1 sleep state

· Low arousal threshold

· Easily awoken, may feel as though they have not slept at all

NREM 1 heart rate

· Decreased heart rate

NREM 1 eye movement

· Slow, rolling eye movements

NREM 1 muscle tension

decreased

NREM 1 function

· Transition between wakefulness and sleep

NREM 1 length

4-5% total sleep time

NREM 2 sleep state

· Light sleep

· Higher arousal

· Sleep state becomes noticeably deeper

NREM 2 heart rate

decreases further