AP U.S. Government & Politics: Key Federalist, Court Cases, and Constitutional Principles

Federalist #10

Madison argues factions are inevitable, but a large republic controls their effects by spreading power across many interests.

Federalist #51

Madison argues separation of powers and checks and balances protect liberty; 'ambition must be made to counteract ambition.'

Federalist #70

Hamilton argues for a strong, energetic, single executive because one president provides accountability, speed, and decisiveness.

Federalist #78

Hamilton argues the judiciary is the least dangerous branch and supports life tenure/judicial independence.

Brutus #1

Anti-Federalist essay arguing the Constitution gives the national government too much power and threatens state power and individual liberty.

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. government; weak national government, no power to tax, no executive, no national court, and hard to amend.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document declaring independence from Britain; based on natural rights, consent of the governed, and the right to revolt.

Letter from a Birmingham Jail

MLK Jr. defends civil disobedience and argues people have a moral duty to resist unjust laws.

Incorporation Doctrine

The process by which the Supreme Court applies Bill of Rights protections to the states through the 14th Amendment.

Iron Triangle

A close relationship between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that influence policy.

Issue Networks

Loose, changing groups of people and organizations that influence policy in a specific issue area.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress power to regulate interstate commerce; often used to expand federal power.

Necessary & Proper Clause

Allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its expressed powers; also called the elastic clause.

Dual Federalism

Federal and state governments have separate powers and responsibilities; 'layer cake' federalism.

Cooperative Federalism

Federal and state governments share responsibilities and work together; 'marble cake' federalism.

Categorical Grants

Federal money given to states for a specific purpose with strict rules.

Block Grants

Federal money given to states for a broad purpose with more flexibility.

Unfunded Mandates

Federal requirements placed on states without providing enough money to carry them out.

Nullification

The idea that states can ignore or reject federal laws they believe are unconstitutional.

Supremacy Clause

Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land over state laws.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

States must recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.

Eminent Domain

Government power to take private property for public use with just compensation.

Kelo v. New London

Case allowing eminent domain for economic development if it serves a public purpose.

Divided Government

When one party controls the presidency and another controls one or both chambers of Congress.

Electoral College

System used to elect the president; voters choose electors who formally vote for president.

EOP - White House Office

Executive Office of the President; helps the president manage policy, communication, and administration.

Executive Orders

Commands from the president that direct executive agencies and have the force of law.

Executive Privilege

The president's claimed right to keep certain communications confidential.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic used to delay or block a vote by extending debate.

Cloture

A Senate vote to end debate and break a filibuster; currently requires 60 votes.

1st Amendment

Protects religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

10th Amendment

Reserves powers not given to the federal government to the states or people.

12th Amendment

Changed presidential elections so electors vote separately for president and vice president.

14th Amendment

Grants citizenship, due process, and equal protection; key amendment for incorporation.

15th Amendment

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race.

19th Amendment

Grants women the right to vote.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two elected terms.

24th Amendment

Bans poll taxes in federal elections.

25th Amendment

Establishes presidential succession and procedures for presidential disability.

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age to 18.

Grassroots

Political movement or campaign driven by ordinary citizens.

Astroturf

Fake grassroots campaign organized by wealthy groups, corporations, or political interests.

Jim Crow Laws

State and local laws enforcing racial segregation, mostly in the South.

Equal Time Rule

Broadcast stations must give equal opportunity to opposing political candidates if they give airtime to one.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship before publication; usually unconstitutional.

Gridlock

When government struggles to pass laws, often because of divided government or partisan conflict.

Line-Item Veto

Power to reject specific parts of a bill; ruled unconstitutional for the president.

OMB

Office of Management and Budget; helps prepare the federal budget and reviews agency actions.

Legislative Veto

Congressional action to overturn executive actions without passing a new law; ruled unconstitutional.

Bully Pulpit

The president's ability to use public attention to shape opinion and pressure Congress.

War Powers Resolution

Law limiting the president's ability to use troops without congressional approval.

Advice and Consent

Senate power to approve treaties and confirm presidential appointments.

Rules Committee

Powerful House committee that sets debate rules and determines how bills reach the floor.

Ways and Means Committee

House committee responsible for taxes, revenue, tariffs, and entitlement programs.

Conference Committee

Temporary committee that resolves differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Standing Committees

Permanent committees in Congress that specialize in specific policy areas.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or candidate.

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats among states after the census.

Redistricting

Redrawing district boundaries within a state after reapportionment.

Miranda Rights

Rights police must read to suspects before custodial interrogation, including the right to remain silent and right to an attorney.

Amending the Constitution

Formal change process requiring proposal and ratification; usually 2/3 Congress and 3/4 states.

Horse Race Journalism

Campaign coverage focused on who is winning rather than policies or issues.

Strict Construction

Interpreting the Constitution based closely on its text and original meaning.

Loose Construction

Interpreting the Constitution broadly to allow government action not specifically listed.

Originalism

Interpreting the Constitution based on the original meaning when written.

Judicial Activism

When courts are more willing to strike down laws or create major policy changes.

Judicial Restraint

When courts defer more to elected branches and avoid broad rulings.

Entitlements

Government benefits people receive if they meet eligibility requirements, such as Social Security or Medicare.

Incumbency Advantage

Benefits current officeholders have when running for reelection, such as name recognition and fundraising.

PACs

Political action committees that raise and donate limited money to candidates.

Super PACs

Independent groups that can raise and spend unlimited money but cannot directly coordinate with candidates.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination in public accommodations and employment based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Outlawed discriminatory voting practices and strengthened federal protection of voting rights.

Original Jurisdiction

A court's authority to hear a case first.

Appellate Jurisdiction

A court's authority to review decisions made by lower courts.

Symbolic Speech

Nonverbal expression protected by the First Amendment, such as armbands or flag burning.

Exclusionary Rule

Evidence obtained illegally cannot usually be used in court.

Writ of Certiorari

Supreme Court order to send up records from a lower court; used when the Court agrees to hear a case.

Marbury v. Madison

Established judicial review, allowing courts to strike down unconstitutional laws.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Confirmed implied powers and federal supremacy; states cannot tax the federal government.

Schenck v. US

Allowed limits on speech creating a 'clear and present danger.'

Brown v. Board of Education

Ruled school segregation unconstitutional; 'separate but equal' violates equal protection.

Baker v. Carr

Allowed federal courts to hear redistricting cases; supported 'one person, one vote.'

Engel v. Vitale

Banned school-sponsored prayer in public schools under the Establishment Clause.

Gideon v. Wainwright

Guaranteed the right to an attorney for felony defendants through the 6th and 14th Amendments.

Tinker v. Des Moines

Students have free speech rights at school unless speech causes substantial disruption.

NY Times v. US

Protected press freedom and made prior restraint very difficult.

Wisconsin v. Yoder

Protected Amish parents' religious right to remove children from school after 8th grade.

Roe v. Wade

Previously recognized abortion as protected under privacy rights; later overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson.

Shaw v. Reno

Racial gerrymandering can violate the Equal Protection Clause.

US v. Lopez

Limited Congress's Commerce Clause power; guns near schools were not interstate commerce.

McDonald v. Chicago

Incorporated the 2nd Amendment right to bear arms against the states.

Citizens United v. FEC

Allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited independent money in elections under free speech.

Franking

Privilege allowing members of Congress to send official mail to constituents for free.

Supreme Court Life Terms

Federal judges serve during good behavior to protect judicial independence from politics.

Political Socialization

The process by which people develop political beliefs and values.

Critical Elections

Elections that mark major shifts in party coalitions, issues, or political alignment.

Establishment Clause

First Amendment rule that government cannot establish or favor a religion.

Free Exercise Clause

First Amendment rule protecting people's right to practice religion.

Plurality

Winning more votes than anyone else, even without a majority.