Miltenberger Combined Chapters 13-20

What is a functional assessment?

gathering information about the antecedents and consequences that are functionally related to the occurrence of a problem behavior

What are the six functions of behavioral excesses?

(1) positive automatic reinforcement, (2) positive reinforcement: social, (3) positive reinforcement: tangible, (4) negative automatic reinforcement, (5) negative reinforcement: escape motivated social, and (6) negative reinforcement: escape motivated task

Identify and describe the three major methods for conducting a functional assessment of a problem behavior.

indirect methods, direct observation, experimental methods

What questions could you ask in an interview to determine the antecedents and consequences of a problem behavior?

ANTECEDENTS:

1) When and where does the problem behavior usually occur?

2) Who is present when the problem behavior occurs?

3) What activities or events precede the occurrence of the problem behavior?

4) What do other people say or do immediately before the problem behavior?

CONSEQUENCES:

1) What happens after the problem behavior occurs?

2) What do you do when the problem behavior occurs?

3) What does the child get, get out of, or avoid after the problem behavior?

4) What changes after the problem behavior occurs?

Identify and describe three ways to conduct ABC direct observation assessments.

1) Descriptive method: describe each antecedent and consequence every time the behavior occurs

2) Checklist method: complete a checklist with columns for possible antecedents, behaviors, and consequences

3) Interval or real-time method: divide observation period into time intervals and use data sheet to record when the behavior occurs and specific events that may serve as antecedents and consequences to the behavior

What is descriptive analysis (assessment) and what is its limitation?

Use of direct and indirect functional assessment methods to describe antecedents and consequences either from memory or from direct observation of events. It does not prove that the variables are functionally related to the behavior because there is no direct manipulation of variables.

What is the outcome of descriptive functional assessment methods?

Develop hypotheses about the antecedents and consequences controlling the problem behavior

What is functional analysis?

Otherwise referred to as experimental method of conducting a functional assessment, it demonstrates a functional relationship between antecedents and consequences and problem behavior through a direct manipulation of variables

What are the steps in conducting a functional assessment?

1) start with a behavioral interview

2) develop a hypothesis about the ABCs of the problem behavior

3) conduct a direct observation assessment

4) confirm your initial hypothesis about the ABCs of the problem behavior

5) conduct further assessments if needed

6) conduct a functional analysis if needed

What is an exploratory functional analysis?

It typically includes three or four test conditions and a control condition. In each test condition an EO is presented and a possible reinforcer for the problem behavior. In a control condition, an AO is presented and possible reinforcers for the problem behavior are withheld.

What is a hypothesis-testing functional analysis?

There is one test condition and one control condition. The test condition presents the hypothesized EO, and when the problem behavior occurs, presents the hypothesized reinforcer. The control condition presents the hypothesized AO, and if the problem behavior occurs, does not provide the hypothesized reinforcer.

What is a functional intervention?

Interventions such as extinction, differential reinforcement, and antecedent manipulations that address the antecedents and consequences identified in the functional assessment (they address the function of behavior).

Define extinction.

eliminating the reinforcing consequence for a behavior results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior

Why must you conduct a functional assessment before using extinction to decrease a problem behavior?

Because you must identify the specific reinforcer for the problem behavior so you can eliminate it in an extinction procedure

Why is it important to collect data on the problem behavior when implementing an extinction procedure?

To determine whether the behavior decreased when extinction was implemented

Before using an extinction procedure, you must ask whether the reinforcer can be eliminated. Why is this important?

If the change agent has no control over the reinforcer, extinction cannot be applied

Before using an extinction procedure, you must ask whether extinction is safe to use. Why is this important?

Extinction could result in harm to the person to other people in the immediate environment (e.g., attacking people, aggressive behavior, running into the street). negatively reinforced behaviors are especially dangerous because it often require that you prevent escape and that requires physical guidance.

What is an extinction burst and how should it influence your decision about whether to implement extinction in a particular case?

The behavior increases in frequency, duration, or intensity, or novel behaviors or emotional responses occur following the implementation of an extinction procedure. You must be certain that the change agents can tolerate the escalation in the behavior

What happens if the change agents cannot maintain consistency in using the extinction procedure?

if not consistent, and the problem behavior is reinforced even occasionally, the procedure amounts to intermittent reinforcement for the behavior rather than extinction, and will make the problem worse.

Why is it important to use a reinforcement procedure in conjunction with extinction?

The extinction procedure decreases the frequency of the problem behavior, and the reinforcement procedure increases an alternative behavior to replace the problem behavior, which makes it less likely that the problem behavior will occur again after extinction (spontaneous reinforcement).

How is the schedule of reinforcement before extinction related to the effectiveness of extinction?

With continuous reinforcement, extinction is more rapid. With intermittent reinforcement, problem behavior decreases more gradually during extinction.

What is sensory reinforcement? What is another name for sensory reinforcement? Provide an example of a behavior maintained by sensory reinforcement.

The reinforcer for the behavior is not socially mediated and involves the sensory stimulation produced by the behavior itself (automatic positive reinforcement). For example, repetitive behaviors such as plate spinning.

What is sensory extinction?

It involves changing or eliminating the sensory stimulation that reinforces the behavior.

Describe how you would promote the generalization and maintenance of the behavior change produced through an extinction procedure.

To promote generalization, extinction must be implemented consistently by all change agents and must be implemented in all circumstances in which behavior change is expected.

To promote maintenance, it is important to implement the extinction procedure after the initial suppression of the behavior whenever the problem behavior occurs again.

It is also important to deliver consistent reinforcement of alternative behavior that is functionally equivalent to the problem behavior.

Define differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA).

A behavioral procedure used to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior and to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors by combining reinforcement for a desirable behavior and extinction of undesirable behavior.

What two behavioral principles are involved in differential reinforcement?

reinforcement for a desirable behavior and extinction of undesirable behaviors

When is it appropriate appropriate to use DRA?

When you want to increase the rate of a desirable behavior and the desirable behavior is already occurring at least occasionally. You must have access to a reinforcer that can be delivered after the occurrence of the behavior.

Describe four ways to identify reinforcers for a person.

1) use the reinforcer currently maintaining undesirable behavior

2) observe the person and note which activities or interests he or she pursues

3) ask the client, parents, and/or teachers, or use reinforcer questionnaires

4) do a preference assessment

When using DRA, at what point do you use a continuous reinforcement schedule?

immediately in the early stages of DRA

When using DRA, at what point do you use an intermittent reinforcement schedule?

once the desirable behaviors are occurring consistently and the undesirable behaviors occur rarely

use an intermittent reinforcement schedule to maintain target behavior and to make it more resistant to extinction

What is the Premack principle?

using a high probability behavior to reinforce a low probability behavior

What is generalization? How do you program for generalization when using DRA?

The target behavior should occur outside the training situation in all relevant stimulus situations.

Differentially reinforce the target behavior in as many relevant situations as possible and by as many relevant people as possible

How does DRO differ from DRA?

DRO: reinforce for the absence of the problem behavior; used when you want to eliminate a problem behavior

DRA: reinforce an alternative desirable behavior; used when you want to increase the frequency of an existing desirable behavior

What does DRO stand for? Describe the implementation of the DRO procedure.

differential reinforcement of other behavior; the reinforcer is contingent on the absence of problem behavior

if the reinforcer is delivered only after periods in which the problem behavior is absent, the problem behavior decreases through extinction and time periods without the problem behavior should increase

implementation:

1) identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior

2) identify the reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure

3) choose the initial DRO time interval

4) eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior

5) reset the interval if the problem behavior occurs

6) gradually increase the interval length

Why is it important to use extinction for the problem behavior when implementing DRO?

Extinction is used when the problem behavior occurs. Reinforcing the absence of the problem behavior would not be effective if instances of the problem behavior continued to be reinforced.

How do you establish the length of the interval for reinforcement in the DRO procedure?

The length of the interval should be tied to the baseline rate of the problem behavior: if the problem behavior occurs frequently, the DRO interval will be short; if the problem behavior occurs infrequently, the DRO interval will be longer. As the frequency of the problem behavior decreases, the DRO intervals can be lengthened gradually

When implementing DRO, what do you do if the problem behavior occurs before the end of the interval for reinforcement?

Reset the interval

How is a whole-interval DRO procedure different from a momentary DRO procedure? Which one is preferable?

With whole-interval, the behavior must be absent throughout the entire interval to receive reinforcement. With momentary, behavior must be absent when the interval ends to receive reinforcement. Whole-interval DRO is typically more effective; momentary DRO can be used for maintenance after first using whole-interval DRO to decrease problem behavior.

What is DRL? What are the two types of DRL procedures?

Differential reinforcement of low rates of responding. A reinforcer is delivered contingent on a lower rate of responding during a period of time. It is used when a low rate of the problem behavior can be tolerated or when the behavior is a problem only because of its high rate.

Th two types are full-session DRL and spaced-responding DRL.

How is full-session DRL implemented?

Reinforcement is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur in a period of time.

How is spaced-responding DRL implemented?

Reinforcement is not delivered until a specified amount of time between responses occurs.

How does the purpose of DRO differ from that of spaced-responding DRL?

DRO is used when you want to eliminate a problem behavior. DRL is used when you want to decrease the rate of a behavior that occurs too frequently.

How does the implementation of DRO differ from the implementation of spaced-responding DRL?

With DRO, the reinforcer is deliverd for the absence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed. With DRL, the reinforcer is delivered for the occurrence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed since the last instance of the behavior.

When implementing the spaced-responding DRL procedure, what do you do if the behavior occurs before the end of the interval?

The behavior is not reinforced and the interval is reset.

In general terms, what are antecedent control procedures?

Manipulating some aspect of the physical or social environment prior to behavior to make a desired behavior more likely or to make a competing, undesirable behavior less likely. Efforts are made to evoke desired behaviors and prevent undesirable behaviors.

How is the occurrence of undesirable competing behaviors related to the occurrence of a desirable behavior?

Competing behaviors are concurrent operants reinforced on concurrent schedules of reinforcement. One way to make a desirable behavior more likely to occur is to make undesirable behaviors less likely to occur.

What is the goal of antecedent control procedures with regard to the occurrence of undesirable competing behaviors?

To decrease the likelihood that undesirable competing behaviors will occur

What are the three antecedent control strategies that can be used to evoke a desirable behavior?

1) presenting the SD or supplemental stimuli that have stimulus control over the desired behavior

2) arranging an establishing operation such that the consequence of the desirable behavior is more reinforcing

3) decreasing the response effort for the desirable behavior

What are the three antecedent control strategies that can be used to decrease the likelihood of undesirable competing behaviors?

1) removing the SD or cues for the competing behaviors

2) presenting an abolishing operation for the outcome of the competing behaviors

3) increasing the response effort for the competing behaviors

Why is it important to use differential reinforcement in conjunction with antecedent control procedures when you want to increase a desirable behavior?

To strengthen the desirable behavior once it occurs. Antecedent manipulations done without effective consequences will not lead to lasting behavior change.

What does it mean to say that an intervention is functional?

It decreases problem behaviors and increases desirable behaviors by modifying the antecedent and consequence variables that control the behaviors

Besides antecedent manipulations, what are two other functional interventions for problem behaviors?

Extinction and differential reinforcement

What is punishment? What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?

Occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence that results in a decrease in the future probability of the behavior.

Positive punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or event

Negative punishment: removal of a reinforcing stimulus or event

Describe time-out.

The loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period contingent on the problem behavior; the result is a decrease in the future probability of the problem behavior

What is non-exclusionary time-out? What is exclusionary time-out?

Non-exclusionary time-out: the person remains in the room while being removed from access to positive reinforcers

Exclusionary time-out: the person is removed from the room/reinforcing environment where the problem behavior occurred and is taking to another room; this removes the person from all sources of positive reinforcement

Under what conditions would you use non-exclusionary time-out rather than exclusionary time-out?

When (a) the person can be removed from the reinforcing activities or interactions while still remaining in the room and (b) the presence of the person in the room will not be disruptive to others in the environment

Describe how the effectiveness of time-out is related to the function of the problem behavior and the nature of the time-in environment.

Time-out is appropriate to use with problem behaviors that are maintained by positive reinforcement involving social or tangible reinforcers

The time-in environment (the environment where the problem behavior occurs) must consist of positively reinforcing activities or interactions for time-out to be effective

Describe the characteristics of an appropriate time-out room or area.

The room/area should be safe, well-lighted, and barren (empty except for a chair)

must not contain any objects that clients could use to hurt themselves

an observation window is ideal so the client can be observed during time-out

the room must not have a lock so the client cannot lock out the change agent and the change agent cannot lock in the client

How long should time-out periods be?

Client should be returned to the time-in environment as soon as possible; duration is typically 1-10 minutes.

However, if the client is engaging in problem behaviors in the time-out area at the end of the time-out period, time-out is extended for a brief time until the client is no longer engaging in problem behaviors.

If parents use time-out with their child, what must the parents do and not do while the child is in the time-out room or area?

Time-out must be implemented calmly and without any emotional response from the change agent

The change agent should not interact with the child during time-out ; reprimands, explanations, or any other form of attention should be avoided

Describe response cost. Explain what makes response cost a negative punishment procedure. Describe two examples of response cost procedures.

The removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer contingent on the occurrence of a problem behavior.

A negative punishment procedure because it results in the loss of reinforcers to which the individual already has access

Examples: parking tickets; losing tokens

Describe the differences among extinction, time-out, and response cost.

With extinction, the problem behavior is no longer followed by the reinforcing event that previously maintained the behavior

With time-out, the person is removed from access to all sources of reinforcement contingent on the problem behavior

With response cost, a specific amount of a reinforcer the person already possesses is removed after the problem behavior

What is punishment? What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?

Occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence that results in a decrease in the future probability of the behavior.

Positive punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or event

Negative punishment: removal of a reinforcing stimulus or event

Describe the application of aversive activities as a form of positive punishment. Describe how it is based on the Premack principle.

Contingent on the problem behavior, the client is made to engage in an aversive activity. As a result, the problem behavior is less likely to occur in the future. If the client does not engage in the activity when instructed, the change agent then uses physical guidance to make the client engage in the behavior.

Based on the Premack principle: the requirement to engage in a low probability behavior (the aversive activity) is made contingent on the occurrence of a high probability behavior (the problem behavior)

Describe the positive practice procedure.

A form of overcorrection in which the client has to engage in correct forms of relevant behavior for either an extended period of time or until the correct behavior has been repeated a number of times contingent on an instance of the problem behavior.

ex: when a child wets his bed, has to practice the correct behavior of getting out of bed and going to the bathroom ten times

Describe the restitution procedure.

A form of overcorrection in which the client must correct the environmental effects of the problem behavior and restore the environment to a condition better than that which existed before the problem behavior contingent on each instance of the problem behavior.

The client overcorrects the environmental effects of the problem behavior

ex: when a child draws on the wall with crayons, must clean that wall and another wall

Describe the contingent exercise procedure. How does it differ from overcorrection?

The client is made to engage in some form of physical exercise contingent on an instance of the problem behavior.

The aversive activity involves physical exercise unrelated to the problem behavior)

ex: child has to wash the windows when he is caught swearing

Describe the guided compliance procedure.

The person is guided physically through the requested activity contingent on the occurrence of problem behavior. Once initiated, physical guidance is withdrawn if the person begins to comply with the requested activity.

Describe the physical restraint procedure. Provide an example. Provide an example of response blocking.

Contingent on a problem behavior, the change agent holds immobile the part of the client's body that is involved in the behavior for a brief period. While being physically restrained, the student cannot engage in the problem behavior or any other behavior, and the teacher does not interact with the client while applying restraint.

Response blocking: the change agent prevents the occurrence of a problem behavior by physically blocking the response (ex: block thumb sucking)

Describe the application of aversive stimulation as a form of positive punishment. Identify 6 different aversive stimuli that have been used in positive punishment procedures.

Involves delivering an aversive stimulus after the problem behavior; when the problem behavior results in the delivery of the aversive stimulus, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future (ex: electric shock, aromatic ammonia, spray mist of water in the face, facial screening, noise, reprimands)

How do you know whether a particular stimulus is an aversive stimulus for a person?

Different stimuli function as reinforcers and punishers for different people and in different contexts; an aversive stimulus is always defined by its effect on the behavior it follows

Identify the 6 issues that must be addressed when using a punishment procedure.

1) use functional interventions first

2) implement differential reinforcement with punishment

3) consider the function of the problem behavior

4) choose the aversive stimulus with care

5) collect data to make treatment decisions

6) address the ethical considerations in the use of punishment

What is informed consent?

A person must fully understand the punishment procedure, the rationale for its use, how and when it will be used, its intended effects and side effects, and possible treatment alternatives.

The person (typically parents) must willingly agree before punishment procedure is used

How is severity of the problem behavior related to the use of punishment?

Punishment should be reserved for more severe problem behaviors

What is peer review and how is it related to the use of punishment?

The punishment procedure must be written into a detailed program, and the written program must be reviewed by a panel of peers

What steps can be taken to ensure accountability in the use of punishment?

1) testing everyone before they are allowed to use the program

2) having each person who conducts the program experience it prior to using it

3) assigning a specific individual to be responsible for implementing the program each time

4) requiring accurate record keeping that was verified each time by the staffs supervisor and one of the primary treatment personnel

What is generalization? Why is generalization important in a behavior modification program?

The occurrence of the behavior in the presence of stimuli that are similar in some way to the SD that was present during training; a class of similar stimuli develops stimulus control over the behavior; the occurrence of the behavior in the presence of all relevant stimuli outside the training situation

Important because you want the behaviors to occur beyond the training circumstances in all the relevant stimulus situations

Identify and describe the 8 strategies for promoting generalization.

1) reinforce instances of generalization

2) training skills that contact natural contingencies of reinforcement

3) modifying contingencies of reinforcement and punishment in the natural environment

4) incorporating a wide range of relevant stimulus situations in training

5) incorporating common stimuli

6) teaching a range of functionally equivalent responses

7) providing cues in the natural environment

8) incorporating self-generated mediators of generalization

One generalization strategy is to reinforce instances of generalization; another is to train skills that contact natural contingencies of reinforcement, Which strategy is preferable?

Training skills that contact natural contingencies of reinforcement, because it is not always possible to reinforce instances of generalization or to provide reinforcement for the behavior in relevant situations outside the training situation

What is general case programming?

Using multiple training examples (stimulus exemplars) that sample the range of relevant stimulus situations and response variations during training

It is important to teach a range of functionally equivalent responses to promote generalization. Why?

The learner learns all the variations that may be needed in the natural situation.

How does using common stimuli in training facilitate generalization?

The training situation is programmed to contain or stimuli in common with generalization situations

What can you do to promote generalization if there are no natural contingencies of reinforcement for the behavior?

Modify the contingencies of reinforcement in the relevant situations; the trainer should teach others in the natural environment to reinforce the behavior

Provide two examples of how you could provide cues in the natural environment to promote generalization.

Put up signs in the bathroom to remind employees to wash their hands

Provide a buzzer to remind a parent/teacher to engage in the correct behavior at the correct time

Describe how you could use self-generated mediators of generalization to promote the generalization of the skills you learn in this class.

Taking notes/reviewing notes

Self-recording; self-instruction

What is a generalization reduction in a problem behavior?

Improvement in functioning is defined not only by a decrease or elimination of the problem behavior but, more importantly, by the development and maintenance of new skills or the strengthening of existing alternative behaviors and an increase in the quantity of positive reinforcement

To achieve a generalized reduction in a problem behavior, the focus of the intervention efforts should be on developing appropriate functionally equivalent alternative behaviors as replacements for the problem behavior

Identify and describe the 4 guidelines for achieving a generalized reduction in a problem behavior?

1) conduct a functional assessment of the problem behavior

2) plan for generalization in advance

3) focus on functionally equivalent alternative behaviors to replace the problem behaviors

4) maintain extinction (or punishment) contingencies across situations and over time

Why should an extinction (or punishment) contingency be continued beyond the point at which the frequency of the problem behavior has reached zero?

Reinforcement for the problem behavior must be eliminated in all situations for as long as the person continues to engage in the problem behavior; if extinction or punishment contingencies are discontinued prematurely, there is a risk that the problem behavior may begin to occur more frequently

A written document that specifies a particular target behavior for a client and the consequences that will be contingent on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior in a specified period of time.

behavioral contract

The target behavior that is influenced in a self-management project.

controlled behavior

The use of self-management strategies in which the antecedents and consequences of a target behavior and/or alternative behaviors are modified.

controlling behavior

A self-management strategy in which the person decides on and writes down the desired level of the target behavior he or she hopes to achieve as a result of self-management procedures.

goal setting

Self-statements that make it more likely that a target behavior will occur in a specific situation.

self-instructions

Behavior modification procedures used by a person to change his or her own behavior. In a self-management strategy, the person engages in a behavior that alters an antecedents and/or consequences of the target behavior or alternative behavior.

self-management

Making positive statements to yourself or providing positive evaluations of your own behavior after engaging in an appropriate behavior.

self-praise

Occurs when a person arranges a reinforcer for a target behavior in a self-management project but then takes the reinforcer without first engaging in the target behavior. May also occur when a person arranges a punisher for a target behavior but does not implement the punisher after engaging in the target behavior.

short-circuiting the contingency

Occurs when significant others provide a natural context or cues for the occurrence of the target behavior or when they naturally provide reinforcing consequences for the occurrence of the target behavior.

social support

Steps in a self-management plan

1) Make the decision to engage in self-management

2) Define the target behavior and competing behaviors

3) Set goals

4) Self-monitor

5) Conduct a functional assessment

6) Choose appropriate self-management strategies

7) Evaluate change

8) Reevaluate self-management strategies if necessary

9) Implement maintenance strategies