Issues and Debates (complete) (copy)

describe the nature side of the nature-nurture debate.

• rooted in nativist theory (knowledge and abilities are innate or preprogrammed)

• philosophers such as Descartes agreed with this side

• genetics are the primary cause of behaviour

explain the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate.

• rooted in empiricist theory - behaviour is a result of our experiences and learning

• Philosopher John Locke argued that the mind was ‘tabula rasa’ or blank slate on which experiences are written on

• person’s environment is the primary cause of behaviour

what are the 3 levels of the environment in relation to ‘nurture’.

1. pre-natal

2. post-natal experiences (conditions grown up in)

3. wider culture/historical context

what is the nature-nurture debate about?

the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour

behaviour is often a result of both nature and nurture

what 2 conclusions can be drawn from twin studies in relation to the nature-nurture debate?

eg. Gottesman SZ

1. higher concordance rates in MZ than DZ - the role of genetics

2. BUT concordance rates are not 100% so must be environmental factors involved

What are the issues with twin studies in supporting nature vs nurture?

What are the possible alternatives?

general issues with twin studies in the support of nature (small sample, concord never 100, shared environments)

alternatively = adoption studies, remove the similar environment to determine the relative importance of nature separately. (however this can cause ethical issues, eg 3 identical strangers)

what are 4 topics that support the nature side of the debate?

• concordance rates

• MAOA gene

• XY XX

• DRD3 PCM1 (sz)

what are 4 topics that support the nurture side of the debate?

• concordance rates never being 100%

• SLT and aggression/gender

• Margaret Mead, cultural differences in gender

• family dysfunction - SZ

what are the other explanations for the nature-nurture debate?

interactionist approach SZ

• argues that genetics predispose individuals, however, predispositions are moderated by the environment.

• therefore a person’s phenotype is a product of the interaction between nature and nurture (eg diathesis-stress model

biosocial approach to gender

• an interactionist approach to GD

what are 3 examples of disorders that are more common in one gender?

males

• PTSD

• ADHD

• autism

females

• EDs

• anxiety disorders

• OCD

what 3 researchers investigated gender bias?

baron-cohen 2002

Bremsel and Gallup 2012

Maccoby and Jacklin 1974

what was Baron-Cohen’s research into gender bias?

argued that high prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in males is a result of an ‘extreme male brain’

people with autism process the world through a 'male' lens and take an interest in stereotypically male topics.

they may have trouble with tasks that women are supposedly better at, such as grasping social cues.

What was Bremsel and Gallup's research into gender bias?

propose having an ‘extreme female brain’ can explain differences in the prevalence of EDs between males and females

• male brain = high systemising skills, low empathising skills

• female brain = high empathising, low systemising

what was Maccoby and Jacklin’s research into gender bias?

concluded there was only consistent evidence for 4 differences that exist between males and females behaviour

1. girls have greater verbal ability

2. girls are less aggressive

3. boys have greater visual and spatial abilities

4. boys have greater arithmetical abilities

what is gender bias?

• when psychological research offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience of both men and women

• threatens universality of reasearch which aims to develop theories that apply to everyone

what are the two types of gender bias?

alpha bias

• psychological research exaggerates/overestimates the differences between males and females

• consequence is that one gender is devalued in comparison to another

beta bias

• psychological research minimises/underestimates the differences between the sexes

• eg. research by Asch and Milgram only used male ppts - response given was assumed applicable to both sexes

What is androcentrism?

• possible consequence of gender bias known as male bias

• behaviour of men is accepted as the norm and that the behaviour of women is different is therefore atypical

• gynocentrism = dominant focus on women in research/theory - opposite

what are the 2 supporting theories for alpha bias?

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

• suggested that removing a young child from their mother would cause emotional problems later in life

• overestimated the importance of the maternal bond, downplaying the role of the father

freudian theories

• exaggerates the differences between sexes in his theories of gender development

• sees femininity as an expression of failed masculinity.

• androcentric as Freud took male behaviour as the standard for all human behaviour.

• concept of penis envy means that women are defined by what they lack

What are 2 supporting theories for beta bias?

Biopsychology

• fight or flight response seen as universal in a threatening situation, however new evidence shows that females tends to focus on defending offspring/forming defensive networks with other females

• ‘Tend and befriend’ response

Aggression

• The MAOA gene has been reported in males to cause aggression and is assumed to do the same in females

• however more recent research suggests that it is linked to happiness in females.

what are the implications of alpha and beta bias?

alpha

• creates misleading assumptions about male/female behaviour potentally creating damaging social stereotypes and scientific ‘justification’ for denying people opportunities for a diagnosis

• means there are consequences of research that overestimates differences

beta

• encourages men and women to be seen as equal leading to equal opportunities however, it may lead to misinterpretation of experience.

How is the research process often sexist?

• male researchers and studies which find a gender difference are more likely to be published

• means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a type of institutionalised sexism creating gender bias in theories and research

What is cultural bias?

• when psychological research put forward a view that is not representative of all cultures

• differences have been ignored and findings have been interpreted through the ‘lens’ of a person’s culture

• critics have argued that mainstream psychology has ignored the influence of culture of behaviour and mostly has had a universal approach which is flawed

what are the risks of cultural bias?

threatens the validity and universality of research which aims to develop theories which apply to everyone

what is ethnocentrism?

type of cultural bias

• belief that one’s own culture is superior to others

• making a judgement of a culture based on a person’s own cultural norms and values

• in extreme cases may lead to prejudice and discrimination

what is cultural relativism?

• appreciating variations of behaviour across cultures

• research considers cultural context when examining behaviours in one certain culture.

What are the 5 sources of supporting evidence for cultural bias?

• Ainsworth’s strange situation

• definitions of abnormality

• aggression differences

• margaret mead

• schizophrenia diagnosis

how can Ainsworth’s strange situation be used as support for cultural bias?

• devised in the US - secure attachment is the ideal

• van Ijzendoorn and kroonberg showed variations of attachment types across cultures using the method

• The high % of insecure-avoidant in western Germany led to the misconception that german mothers were cold and rejecting.

How can definitions of abnormality be used as support for cultural bias?

may not apply to different/collectivist cultures

• deviation from ideal mental health, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately

• personal autonomy is seen as an ideal - but this is a Western view that values independence

• social norms differ across culture

• adequately functioning is culturally relative

how can Aggression be used as support for cultural bias?

evolutionary explanations assume that aggression is innate therefore universal across all humans. analysis of different cultures has shown that there is a difference. eg

aka - africa - low

yanomamo - south america - high

how can gender (M.Mead) be used as support for cultural bias?

studying gender in 3 different social groups in Papua new guinea and found differences in gender roles

however, findings were interpreted using Western views of masculinity/femininity

How can schizophrenia be used as support for cultural bias?

validity of diagnosis

• cultural bias in diagnosis as shown by Keith et al - showed that 2.1% of African Americans were diagnosed compared to 1% of the white population.

• ‘Symptoms’ (characteristics from other cultures) can often be misinterpreted as SZ eg hearing voices is values in some cultures

what are the conflicting arguments of the cultural bias debate?

not all human behaviour is culturally relative

• eg stages of kohlberg’s cognitive theory of gender development have been demonstrated across a wide rage of cultures (munroe)

• means that full understanding of behaviour would require universal and cross cultural research

issues may be outdated

• takano & osaka 1999: showed no traditional differences between USA and japan still exist

  • may be outdated due to increased global communications/media

  • means cultural bias is less of an issue than it once was

How is cultural bias being overcome?

• cultural bias has clearly been an issue within psychological research/theories meaning caution should be taken when making generalisations.

• however researchers are now more aware of the importance of cultural relativism

• certain strategies such as including a member of the local population in the research team enable cross-cultural research

what two things must reasearchers consider when thinking about who may be impacted by reasearch?

weighing up the costs and benifits

1. wider implications of reasearch - thinking of the potential costs of the reasearch

2. whethere the reasearch that may influence vulnerable groups is worthwhile - benefits

What are ethical implications?

refers to the impact the research may have on the rights of other people when it is conducted and stakeholders

can be difficult or impossible to control/predict

stakeholders are people who are interested or effected by the findings of the research eg. : ppts, general public, groups that are represented by the participants

Who investigated socially sensitive reasearch?

seiber & stanley 1988

proposed that research in which there are potential consequences for any of the stakeholders should be considered socially sensitive.

explain Cyril Burt’s reasearch in realtion to socially sensitive reasearch.

• used identical twins to support the view that intelligence is largely genetic,

• this impacts ppts (potential discrimination), media and laws+policies = educational policies

• His views greatly influences the hadow report 1926 leading to the creation of the 11+ used 1944-1976 to determine the type of school that a child would attend

• had an impact on their later life chances

• data later revealed to be made up

• he was publically discredited but the 11+ still remained for years and still lingers

• consideration of wider implications of research is essential as well as how to deal with these issues when they arise.

What are the 4 ways to deal with socially sensitive reasearch?

1. Research question = considered carefully

2. Methodology used = consider the treatment of the ppts and their rights (confidentiality, anonymity etc.)

3. Institutional context = mindful of how data is going to be used and consider who is funding reasearch

4. Interpretation/Application of findings = how the findings are interpreted/applied to the real world

What are 2 strengths of the ethical implications debate?

code of ethics is goverened by the BPS

• ethics boards at universities consult the code of ethics and discuss implications of research before it is given approval to be conducted

• guidelines have been altered over time to reduce problems of socially sensitive research

benefits of socially sensitive research

• studies of underrepresented groups and issues may promote greater sensitivity and understanding within society

• suggests socially sensitive research may play a important role in society

what are 2 weaknesses of the ethical implications debate?

some believe ethical guidelines are now too strict

• areas of research which may help individuals, however it cannot be conducted due to social sensitivity restrictions EG institutionalisation/adoption

• shows reaching a balance between ethics and research is problematic in areas

implications of research are hard to predict

• it is not always possible to identify implications for stakeholders. eg subliminal message

• makes ethical approval a hard judgment to make and means that socially sensitive research may still occur

Define subliminal messaging…

method used to influence people without them being aware of what the message is doing

Give an example that shows the issues with subliminal messaging…

In 1950s there was lots of research into the method

• 1957 James Vicary carried out experiment to a cinema audience

• bombarded with subliminal messages eg ‘eat popcorn’ or ‘drink coca cola’ appearing on the screen for 3 milliseconds

• resulted in sales increasing in both popcorn and coca cola

• the findings could not be replicated by anyone including law enforcement, researchers and advertisers

• researcher confessed it was a ‘gimmick’

• but by that point the idea that you can manipulate people’s desired with unconscious messages was part of collective culture

shows how there is an issue of losing control of what may happen when research enters the public domain

Explain the case of Brian Dugan in relation to the free will and determinism debate.

• american rapist and serial killer

• 2009 FMRI scans was used for the first time in the sentencing phase of his murder trial

• para-limbic system was considerable less dense in dugan than other test subjects

What is free will?

all humans can make conscious choices and are not determined by biological or external factors (agrees with cognitive and humanistic approaches)

What is determinism?

all an individual’s traits and behaviour are outside of conscious control and are due to internal and external factors.

there are 5 sub-types

What are the 5 types of determinism?

1. hard determinism

2. soft determinism

3. biological determinism (type of hard Determinism)

4. environmental detrminism (type of hard Determinism)

5. psychic determinism (type of hard Determinism)

What is hard determinism?

• all human behaviour has an identifiable cause

• everything a person’s dies/thinks is determined by internal or external factors

• all behaviour is entirely out of individuals control

What is soft determinism?

• William James (1890s philosopher)

  • all human behaviour has a cause, but an individual does have some conscious control over the way that they behave

• eg cognitive approach (thoughts can lead to behaviour but the thoughts can be changed)

• can be seen as a compromise between FW and D

What are the three types of hard determinism?

biological

• behaviour is caused by internal biological factors (eg genes, hormones, neurochemicals, brain struct)

• things the we cannot control

• eg bio approach

environmental

• behaviour is caused by external factors such as experiences, upbringing, learning, parents, peers that we cannot control

• eg learning approaches (SLT and behaviourism)

psychic

• behaviour is caused by unconscious instincts and drives

• and that the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences

• eg psychodynamic approach

explain how determinism fits with science?

• hard determinism fits the aims of science - ie, enphasis on the idea that everything in the universe has a cause

• allows scientists to predict and control certain events

• lab experiments enable reasearchers to investigate cause and effect while controlling and minimising extraneous variables

What are 3 supporting evidences for each of the different deterministic views?

biological

• concordance rates

• MAOA gene

• dopamine hypothesis

environmental

• little albert

• situational variables in obedience

• SLT in gender development

psychic

• family dysfunction

• frustration aggression hypothesis

• psychodynamic approach to gender development

soft

• mediational processes in SLT

• cognitive approach to explaining aggression

What are the two main advantages of holding a deterministic view?

psychology as a science

• science is focussed on causes and making predictions, which aligns with deterministic views.

• helps put psychology on equal footing to other sciences

applications of research

• research into therapies and treatments can be conducted if behaviour can be predicted and controlled

• eg antipsychotics in the treatment of SZ

• means this view can lead to positive impacts on patients lives/have real world applications taking a view

What is an issue of a deterministic view?

implications for society - social sensitivity

eg the MAOA gene. if certain genetics predispose people to crime it is hard to hold them responsible. therefor is a problem for the justice system as rehabilitation may be impossible and management of criminals is hard

what is an advantage of a free will view?

application to treatment

approach suggests that people have conscious control over their actions.

this is important in treatment as gives the individual a level of control and responsibility in their recovery

what are 2 disadvantages of the free will view?

implications for psychology as a science

• could be argued that we cannot predict behaviour or find the causes of it, limiting psychology as a science.

implications for treatment

• research into therapies/treatment can’t be conducted if behaviour is uncontrollable or unpredictable

• limits what psychologists can do to help people.

What is the basis of the holism and reductionsim debate?

concerned with the level at which it is appropriate to explain behaviour.

What is reductionism?

explaining things in terms of their basic parts and underlying elements

there are two types of reductionism

1. biological

2. environmental

What are the two types of reductionsim?

biological reductionism= based on the assumption that we are all biological organisms, so all behaviour can be explained at a biological level (eg. bio approach)

environmental reductionism= assumes that complex behaviour can be broken down into simple stimulus - respose links that are measurable, mental processes are ignored as they occur at a psychological level (eg learning approaches)

What is holism?

• focusses on person as a whole

• breaking down processes or behaviour is inappropriate as they can only be understood by analysing the person/behaviour as a whole

• considers all aspects of experience including social context/culture

• eg diathesis stress model SZ (both environmental and biological factors)

what are 2 strengths of a reductionist view?

Treatments

• differing dopamine levels are a cause SZ

• reductionist it as it is only based on biological factors

• advantage as it enables researchers to develop drugs to treat SZ lowering dopamine activity and reducing symptoms

psychology as a science

• the approach underpins the scientific method - looks for a cause, breaking down into simple components,objective - can lead to greater clarity of understanding

• holistic explanations do not lend themselves to scientific testing

what is the contradictory evidence for a reductionist approach?

• focussing on a simple component means other explanations may be missed.

• eg in SZ, reasearchers have identified fanily dysunction as a trigger - more holistic

How can SZ be approached in a holistic way?

interactionist approach eg diathesis stress model, which suggests there are a range of diathesis and stressors

this had lead to a holistic approach in treatments of SZ (drugs and therapy at same time), which has proven to be more effective that one or the other in treating symptoms and causes

What does the nomothetic and ideographic debate argue?

whether it is more important to…

• look at the individual as unique (ideographic)

• look at the individual as part of a group, and try to establish similarities for the group (nomothetic)

What is the ideographic approach?

• from greek term ‘idos’ (private or personal)

• focusses on uniqueness of an individual case when explaining or studying behaviour

• irrelevant to develop general laws of behaviour

qualitative methods are best suited

eg humanistic psychology which states that all individuals are unique

What is the nomothetic approach?

• from greek term ‘nomos’ (laws)

• can draw conclusions about population of people and generalise to the wider group from those that are studied in the research process (the sample)

quantitative methods are best suited testable

eg biological approach has used brain scans to make generalisations about behaviour

What makes the nomothetic approach more scientific?

• uses objective + empirical methods to test hypothesis

• methods are more replicable

• sample sizes are larger/more representitive meaning generalisations can be made to the population

What is the supporting evidence for the nomothetic approach?

Bio treatment of SZ

• nomothetic approaches had led to the development of drug therapies for SZ

• cause of SZ is biological - high/low dopamine activity

• same for all people with SZ

• therefor, drug treatments that adress biochemical imbalance are appropriate

How can the effectiveness of SZ treatment be used to evaluate the ideoraphic and nomothetic approaches debate?

• typical antipsychotic drugs that reduce dopamine activity are successful for 70% of people

• suggests that nomothetic approach has real world benefits

• however not all people were helped meaning the approach is not complete so need inclusions of individual experiences

• CBT is more ideographic as the therapist listens to the patient’s unique viewpoint and alone can help with symptom management

What is the conclusion of the ideographic/nomothetic debate?

• both approaches are needed to understand behaviour

• most sucessful treatent for SZ is a combination of both drugs and therapy

• suggests both approahes are needed for the comeplete study of SZ

What are the strengths (1) and weaknesses (2) of the idiographic approach?

strengths

• use of in depth qualitative methods gives detailed account and can be used to compliment the nomo approach to give supporting evidence for general laws

weaknesses

• narrow/restricted research as it focuses on individuals - meaningful generalisations aren’t always possible

• qualitative methods are more subjective (less scientific), conclusions are therefor open to researcher bias

What is a strength and weakness of the nomothetic approach?

strengths

• research tends to be more scientific - controlled methods with standardised procedures to predict behaviour eg IQ test. allows development of norms for ‘typical behaviour’ (average IQ = 100) and gives psych greater credibility

weaknesses

• too focussed on general laws not taking into account an individuals circumstances and experiences

• means the approach ignores individual human experience