INTRO AND THEORIES

Goals of Developmental Psychology

• Describe: Identifying what behavior occurs and how it changes over time. Example: Noting that a child typically begins walking around 12 months.

• Explain: Identifying the underlying processes or causes of a behavioral change. Example: Determining that improved motor skills stem from muscle maturation and brain development.

• Predict: Forecasting future developmental outcomes based on current trends. Example: Anticipating that early language exposure leads to higher reading readiness scores in preschool.

• Intervene: Applying strategies to enhance positive development or modify negative outcomes. Example: Providing speech therapy to toddlers with language delays.

Behavioral Perspective

Observable and Environmental determinants. Development as a function of learned behaviors.

Ethological Perspective

Frames human development through an evolutionary lens, where behaviors evolve to help individuals adapt successfully to their environments. Explains early behaviors as evolutionary mechanisms designed to secure safety, resources, and caregiver support necessary for survival (Attachment).

Ecological Perspective

Development is influenced by environmental systems that a child actively participates and belongs in.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Behavior stems from unconscious processes and early family experiences and heavily driven by deep-seated inner drives, unresolved conflicts, and formative relationships with primary caregivers during early childhood.

Chronological age

Number of years that have PASSED since birth.

Example: 21-year-old me

Biological age

individual’s biological health

Example: A 60-year-old runner having the cardiovascular health of a typical 40-year-old.

Psychological Age

Adaptive capabilities compared to others of the same chronological age.

Example: A young adult handling extreme emotional stress with high flexibility and resilience.

Social Age

Connectedness to societal roles and expectations.

Example: A person becoming a parent at age 30, conforming to cultural expectations for starting a family.

Ethnic Gloss

An overgeneralization blunting individual differences within a cultural/ethnic group. Example: Labeling all people from a vast continent as having identical cultural views.

Normative History-Graded

Common impacts shared by a specific historical generation or cohort.

Example: Adolescents living through widespread remote schooling during a global pandemic.

Normative Age-Graded

Typical developmental experiences linked to a specific age.

Example: Beginning elementary school around age 6 or retiring around age 65.

Nonnormative

Unpredictable or atypical events disturbing normal developmental trajectories.

Example: Surviving a major natural disaster or losing a parent during early childhood.

Critical Period

Narrow window of time where exposure to specific events is strictly required for normal development.

Example: Limb formation in an embryo during early pregnancy.

Sensitive Period

Optimal window for learning or development, though skills can still be acquired later with more effort.

Example: Acquiring a second language fluently during early childhood.

Reaction Range

Genes set your upper and lower limits for a trait, but your environment determines where you actually end up inside that range.

Example: You might have the genes to grow up to 6 feet tall, but you will only reach that height if you eat healthy food while growing up.

Canalization

When genes strongly control a trait so much that it almost always develops normally, unless something extreme happens in the environment.

Example: Almost all babies naturally learn to roll over and sit up at around the same age, no matter where they grow up.

Genotype-Environment Interaction

When two people with different genes react completely differently to the exact same situation.

Example: Two students get the exact same hard exam; one feels excited by the challenge, while the other feels super anxious because of how they naturally handle stress

Genotype-Environment Correlations

How genes and surroundings match up.

Passive

Parents pass down their genes and automatically create a home that matches those genes.

Example: Athletic parents pass down sports genes and fill the house with basketballs and sneakers.

Evocative

A child’s natural traits draw out specific reactions from people around them.

Example: A kid who is always humming and tapping rhythms makes their parents think, "We should get them a piano!"

Active (Niche-picking)

Kids choose or seek out places and activities that fit their natural traits.

Example: A quiet, introverted teenager chooses to spend time in the library instead of going to loud parties.

Nonshared Environment

The unique experiences that make brothers and sisters raised in the same house turn out different.

Example: Two siblings living in the same home end up with different personalities because they have different friends and different teachers.

Active Development

Jean-Jacques Rousseau ("Noble Savages"): Father of developmental psychology and forerunner of Nativism; believed children are intrinsically good and unfold according to a natural plan unless corrupted by society.

Example: A toddler who independently chooses to explore a new toy to learn how it works

Organismic Model

Views individuals as active participants setting their own development in motion

Example: A toddler who independently chooses to open a box to see what is inside, driving their own exploration

Reactive Development

John Locke ("Tabula Rasa"): Forerunner of Empiricism; proposed children are born as blank slates and shaped entirely by experience.

Example: A child who only studies because they receive a reward from their parents.

Mechanistic Model

Views people like machines responding to environmental input to produce behavioral output.

Example: A student who only completes an assignment because a teacher promises a gold star for finishing.

Continuous Development

Describes development as a gradual, quantitative accumulation of small changes over time.

Example: Tracking a child's height or weight increase month by month.

Discontinuous Development

Describes development as occurring in distinct, qualitative stages where new behaviors emerge abruptly.

Example: Transitioning from non-verbal communication to symbolic language in early childhood.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences that shape adult personality.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory (OAPLG)

Development is driven by innate biological drives (sex, hunger, aggression). Fixation occurs when a stage is over- or under-gratified.

Example: An adult exhibiting excessive tidiness due to an anal-retentive fixation from strict toilet training.

Fixation

being “stuck” at a particular psychosexual stage of development because the person experienced either too much gratification or too much frustration during that stage.

Id

Source of primitive impulses; governed by the Pleasure Principle and Primary Process Thought.

Ego

Intermediary between Id and Superego; governed by the Reality Principle, Primary Narcissism, and Secondary Process Thought.

Superego

Ethical component/conscience that enforces moral standards.

Oral Stage (0–2 yrs)

Occurs from birth to about one year, and the mouth is the main source of pleasure. Activities include sucking and feeding. If there is unresolved conflict during this stage, an oral fixation may develop, which can manifest as behaviors like nail-biting or excessive eating.

Anal Stage (1-3 yrs)

Occurs from one to three years old. The main focus is the anus, particularly bowel control during toilet training. The child develops control and independence. Fixation may result in anal-retentive traits, such as being overly neat and controlling, or anal-expulsive traits, such as being messy and careless.

Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs)

Occurs from three to six years old, and the genitals become the main focus of pleasure.

Freud proposed the Oedipus complex, where a boy experiences unconscious attraction toward his mother and rivalry with his father. The conflict is resolved through identification with the same-sex parent.

Oedipus Complex

Refers to a boy's unconscious attraction toward his mother and rivalry with his father. Because he fears punishment from his father, particularly castration, he develops castration anxiety. He eventually resolves the conflict through identification with his father.

Penis Envy

Freud proposed that girls discover that boys have a penis and perceive themselves as lacking one. Shift her affection toward her father and develop a desire for her father's attention/love.

Latency Stage (6-12 yrs)

Occurs from around six years old until puberty. Sexual impulses are relatively dormant, so the child focuses more on school, friendships, hobbies, and developing social and intellectual skills.

Genital Stage (12+)

Begins at puberty and continues into adulthood. The focus is on mature sexuality and intimate relationships. Successful development involves forming healthy relationships while balancing personal, social, and work responsibilities.

Psychosocial Theory of Erikson

Personality develops throughout the entire lifespan through eight psychosocial stages. Each stage has a conflict between a syntonic or positive tendency and a dystonic or negative tendency. Successfully resolving the conflict develops a virtue.

Trust vs. Mistrust (HOPE) 0-18 mos

The infant learns whether the world is safe and whether caregivers can be trusted or depend on. Successful resolution develops the virtue of hope.

Maladaptive tendency: Sensory Distortion

Malignant tendency: Withdrawal

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (WILL) 2-3

Occurs when toddlers develop independence (feed themselves, walk, tie their own shoes). Should be allowed to do things independently with appropriate guidance.

Maladaptive: Impulsivity (bara-bara)

Malignant: Compulsion (rigid perfectionism)

Initiative vs. Guilt (PURPOSE) 3-6

Preschoolers or the children begin taking initiative, exploring, and creating. Should be encouraged appropriately.

Maladaptive: Ruthlessness (i dont care sa iba, i’ll just do what I want)

Malignant: Inhibition ( i dont want to try baka magkamali ako)

Industry vs. Inferiority (COMPETENCE) 6-12

Occurs during school age, when children develop skills and compare their abilities with others. Successfully developing industry leads to competence.

Maladaptive: Narrow Virtuosity (oa sa superiority)

Malignant: Inertia (inferior)

Identity vs. Role confusion (FIDELITY) 11-20

Adolescents explore different roles, values, and goals to develop a stable sense of who they are.

Maladaptive: Fanaticism (ito lang tama, im sure)

Malignant: Repudiation (walang tama bye reject)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (LOVE) 20-40

The person develops the ability to form deep and committed relationships.

Maladaptive: Promiscuity (over sa close agad)

Malignant: Exclusivity (avoidant)

Generativity vs. Stagnation (CARE) 40-65

Adults seek to contribute to society and guide the next generation.

Maladaptive: Overextension (over sa care sa others)

Malignant: Rejectivity (refuse mag contribute)

Integrity vs. Despair (WISDOM) 65+

Older adults reflect on their lives. If they accept their life as meaningful, they develop integrity and the virtue of wisdom.

Maladaptive: Presumption (over in being certain abt sarili)

Malignant: Disdain (may regrets in life)

Classical Conditioning of Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning is learning through association. Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: The bell is initially a neutral stimulus because it does not naturally cause salivation. After repeatedly pairing the bell with food, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus, and the dog eventually salivates in response to the bell alone. This learned salivation is called the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning of B.F Skinner

If a consequence reinforces a behavior, the behavior becomes more likely to occur. If it punishes the behavior, the behavior becomes less likely to occur. The four types are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Positive Punishment vs. Negative Punishment

Both DECREASE behavior.

Positive punishment = ADD BAD (giving chores)

Negative punishment = REMOVE GOOD (taking away a phone)

Positive Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement

Both INCREASE behavior.

Positive Reinforcement = ADD GOOD (praise for studying)
Negative Reinforcement = REMOVE BAD (bawas chores)

Sociocultural Theory by Lev Vygotsky

Development occurs through social interaction and culture. Children learn through interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and more knowledgeable individuals.

Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between:

What a child can do independently and What they can do with assistance.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person.

As the child becomes competent:

Support decreases → independence increases.

Ecological Theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner

Development is influenced by multiple environmental systems, from immediate surroundings to broader society. “layers of environment” surrounding the child.

Microsystem

Closest and most direct environment. places and people the child interacts with regularly.

Example: A child has supportive parents who help with homework and encourage them. This can improve the child's academic performance and confidence.

Mesosystem

Connection between two or more microsystems. It is about how the child's environments interact with each other.

Example: The child's parents communicate regularly with their teacher about their school performance. Because home and school work together, the child receives consistent support.

Exosystem

Environments that do not directly involve the child, but still affect the child's development.

Example: A parent's workplace changes their schedule, causing them to have less time with their child. The child isn't part of the workplace, but the workplace indirectly affects them.

Macrosystem

The larger culture and society surrounding the child. such as culture, traditions, laws, social norms, economic conditions, beliefs.

Example: In a culture that strongly values academic achievement, a child may experience pressure to get high grades because society places importance on educational success.

Chronosystem

The effect of time and changes over time on development. This includes major life events, historical events, and changes in society.

Example: A child experiences remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sudden change from face-to-face classes to online learning affects their social interaction, education, and development.

Ethological Theory by Harlow (Imprinting)

Harry Harlow demonstrated that attachment is not based only on feeding or satisfying physical needs. Instead, infants have a strong biological need for comfort, contact, and emotional security.

Contact Comfort

The physical and emotional comfort gained from touching and being close to a caregiver.

Example: A baby prefers being held and cuddled by their caregiver because physical contact makes them feel safe.

Cloth vs. Wire Mother

Wire mother → provided milk

Cloth mother → soft and comforting but did not provide milk

The monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother, even when the wire mother provided food.

Ethological Theory by Lorenz (Imprinting)

Development and behavior are influenced by evolution and biological instincts, especially behaviors that help an organism survive and adapt.

Example: Lorenz found that newly hatched ducklings followed him instead of their mother because he was the first moving figure they encountered after hatching.

Critical Period

A specific, limited period in early development when an organism is especially sensitive to certain experiences or learning.

Sensitive Period (optimal)

A period when an organism is particularly receptive or flexible to certain experiences.

Attachment Theory by Bowlby

(Conceptualized from Harlow) Attachment is a biologically based bond between an infant and caregiver that promotes survival and emotional security. The caregiver serves as a secure base, allowing the child to explore while knowing they can return for comfort and protection.

Secure Base

The caregiver acts as a safe base that allows the child to explore.

Example: A toddler plays with toys but periodically goes back to their mom for reassurance before exploring again.

Proximity-Seeking

The child's tendency to stay physically close to their attachment figure, especially when frightened or stressed.

Example: A scared child runs toward their mother and clings to her.

Separation Anxiety

Distress or anxiety when the child is separated from their attachment figure.

Example: A toddler cries when their mother leaves them at daycare.

Safe Haven

The caregiver becomes a source of comfort and protection when the child is distressed.

Example: After falling down, a child runs to their mother to be comforted.

Internal Working Model

A child's mental representation of themselves, other people, and relationships, based on their early attachment experiences.

Example: A child who consistently receives responsive care may develop the expectation that “people will help me when I need them.”

Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth

The Strange Situation is a structured to assess a child's attachment style by observing how they respond to separation from and reunion with their caregiver.

Secure

Mom leaves → child cries.

Mom returns → child reaches for Mom, gets comforted, then goes back to playing.

Avoidant

Mom leaves → child said whatever bro.

Mom returns → child doesn't seek contact and continues playing.

Anxious Resistant Ambivalent

Mom returns → child wants to be held but simultaneously pushes Mom away.

Disorganized

Shows inconsistent, confused, or contradictory behaviors. Child approaches Mom after separation but suddenly stops, turns away, or shows unusual/conflicted behavior.

Separation-individuation theory by Mahler’s

A child's development involves gradually becoming separate and independent from their primary caregiver, while still maintaining an emotional connection with them.

Normal Autistic Phase - Birth to 1 month

A newborn mainly responds to hunger, sleep, warmth, and comfort.

Normal Symbiotic Phase - 1 to 5 months

The baby feels safe and regulated through the mother's presence, touch, and feeding. ONE UNIT

Separation–Individuation Phase - 5 to 24 months

Differentiation → Practicing → Rapprochement → Object Constancy

The child first experiences a symbiotic relationship with the caregiver, then begins differentiating and practices exploring independently. During rapprochement, the child will say “I can do it myself but stay close!”, and eventually develops object constancy, allowing them to maintain an emotional connection to the caregiver even when separated.

Ethics of Care by Giligan

Gilligan proposed the ethics of care, emphasizing relationships, empathy, responsibility, and avoiding harm. She argued that moral reasoning should not be understood only through justice and abstract rules, as emphasized by Kohlberg.

1 - self

2 - others

3 - others and self

Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura (OMC)

People learn by observing others, thinking about the consequences of behavior, and interacting with their environment. “We learn by watching, thinking, and doing.”

Example: A child sees their older sibling say “thank you” and receive praise, so the child starts saying “thank you” too.

Self-Efficacy

A person's belief in their ability to successfully perform a behavior or accomplish a task.

Example: A student thinks, “I can pass this exam if I study.” → high self-efficacy.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Seeing someone else receive a reward for a behavior, which makes you more likely to perform that behavior yourself.

Example: A child sees their classmate get a sticker for answering correctly, so they start raising their hand more often.

Vicarious Punishment

Seeing someone else get punished for a behavior, which makes you less likely to perform that behavior.

Example: A student sees another student get scolded for using their phone during class, so they avoid using their own phone.

Reciprocal Determinism (PBE)

Behavior is influenced by the interplay of:

PERSON ↔ BEHAVIOR ↔ ENVIRONMENT

Example: A confident student (person) participates actively (behavior), which leads to positive feedback from the teacher (environment). The positive feedback increases the student's confidence, which encourages even more participation.

Moral Dilemma

A situation where a person must choose between two or more conflicting moral values, and there is no obviously perfect answer.

Example: You can save either your best friend or five strangers, but not everyone.

Moral Dumbfounding

When a person has a strong moral judgment but cannot clearly explain why they believe something is wrong.

Example: “I know it's wrong, but I can't explain why.”

Black-and-White Morality

Viewing something as completely right or completely wrong, with little recognition of gray areas or context.

Example: “Lying is always wrong, no matter what.”

Moral Simulation

Using imagined situations or scenarios to think through moral choices and their possible consequences.

Imagine the situation → consider choices → consider consequences.

Piaget’s Moral Development

Piaget believed that children's understanding of morality develops as their cognitive abilities and social experiences develop.

He focused especially on how children understand rules, authority, intentions, and punishment.

Premoral / Anomic Stage

The child has little understanding of rules and does not yet have a consistent concept of morality.

Example: A young child may play a game without understanding why there are rules.

Heteronomous Morality

Also called morality of constraint. The child sees rules as fixed and unchangeable (moral realism). Tend to focus on consequences rather than intentions (immanent justice na bad behavior = punish).

Autonomous Morality

Children begin to understand that rules are created by people and it can be changed. Morality depends partly on intentions. Punishment should consider the situation

Moral Development by Kohlberg

Kohlberg focused on HOW people reason about moral problems, not simply whether their behavior is good or bad.