Euro CHAPTER 11 - Middle Ages

Subsistence Agriculture (c. 1000–1300)

• Most peasants farmed only enough to survive, with no surplus.

• Made society extremely vulnerable to famine, climate change, and plague.

• Collapse during the Little Ice Age and Black Death destabilized feudalism.

Four Humors (Classical → Middle Ages)

• Medical theory (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) explaining illness.

• Based on Galen and Hippocrates, showing reliance on classical authority.

• Ineffective during the Black Death, undermining faith in traditional knowledge.

Galen (c. 129–216 CE)

• Ancient physician whose writings dominated medieval medicine.

• Expanded Hippocratic ideas into the Four Humors system.

• His authority discouraged experimentation and slowed medical progress.

Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE)

• Early Greek physician emphasizing natural causes of disease.

• His ideas shaped medieval medicine indirectly through Galen.

• Shows continuity of classical learning into the Middle Ages.

Purgatory (Formalized c. 12th–13th c.)

• Belief in a temporary state of punishment before Heaven.

• Justified practices like indulgences and masses for the dead.

• Heightened fear during the Black Death.

Saint Day Festivities

• Religious holidays structured work and leisure.

• Reinforced communal identity in medieval villages.

• Blended sacred and secular life.

Carnival (Pre-Lent)

• Temporary inversion of social order (mocking elites, indulgence).

• Released social tension without permanent change.

• Reflected rigid hierarchies of medieval society.

Blood Sports

• Violent public entertainment (animal baiting, executions).

• Normalized cruelty and public spectacle.

• Similar logic to public punishment practices.

Charivari

• Community shaming ritual for moral violations.

• Enforced social norms without state involvement.

• Demonstrates communal rather than centralized authority.

Stocks / Public Whipping / Branding

• Punishments designed to humiliate publicly.

• Reinforced obedience through fear and spectacle.

• Reflect lack of rehabilitation-focused justice.

Yersinia pestis

• Bacterium that caused the Black Death.

• Spread by fleas on rats through trade routes (Mongols)

• Killed up to half of Europe’s population.

Black Death (1347–1351)

• Pandemic beginning in 1347.

• Caused massive population loss and labor shortages.

• Triggered revolts like the Jacquerie and Peasants’ Revolt.

• Killed 1/3 of the population in Europe

• Weakened Feudalism

• Social Upheavels/Religious Upheavels

Flagellants (1348–1350)

• Religious groups who whipped themselves to atone for sin.

• Believed plague was God’s punishment.

• Shows religious desperation and lack of scientific understanding.

Pogroms (1348–1350)

• Violent attacks on Jewish communities.

• Jews scapegoated for spreading the plague.

• Reveals fear, antisemitism, and social breakdown.

Triumph of Death (Mid–Late 1300s)

• Artistic theme showing death equalizing all classes.

• Reflected obsession with mortality after the plague.

• Contrasted with later Renaissance optimism (Northern Renaissance)

• “Ars Moriendi” - Art of Dying

The Decameron — Giovanni Boccaccio (1353)

• Giovanni Boccaccio

• Depicts social realism and moral ambiguity.

• Marks transition toward Renaissance literature.

• 100 stories based on people fleeing the plague.

• Insight on society at that time

Statute of Laborers (England, 1351)

• English law freezing wages after the plague.

• Attempted to preserve feudal order.

• Sparked resentment leading to revolt.

John Ball (d. 1381)

• Radical priest during Peasants’ Revolt.

• Preached equality: “When Adam delved…”

• Used religion to challenge hierarchy.

• Executed

• “All people are equal in God’s eyes”

Wat Tyler (d. 1381)

• Leader of English Peasants’ Revolt.

• Demanded end to serfdom and taxes.

• Killed during negotiations with king.

• Against the Statues of Laborers

Jacquerie (France, 1358)

• Violent peasant revolt.

• Reaction to war taxes and noble abuse.

• Suppressed brutally by nobles (didn’t win)

Ciompi Revolt (Florence, 1378)

• Revolt of unskilled textile workers and wool workers

• Demanded political representation.

• Exposed class divisions in cities.

• Better working conditions and wages

• Got crushed

• Growing influence of lower classes.

Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453)

• Conflict between England and France.

• Caused by dynastic claims and territory.

• Encouraged nationalism and state-building.

• End of Feudalism

• New Innovations/Military Tactics

Capetian Dynasty (France, 987–1328)

• French royal family early in war.

• Established hereditary monarchy.

• Strengthened royal legitimacy.

• Early stages of the Hundred Years’ War

• Before the Valois

Scutage (High Middle Ages)

• Payment instead of military service.

• Undermined feudal obligations.

• Enabled professional armies, not forced armies.

• Contributed to Monarchial Rise.

Crécy (1346)

• English victory using longbows.

• Led by Edward the Black Prince.

• Showed decline of knight warfare.

• Weakened Feudalism

• Gets Calais for a whole century from France.

• Noble decline

Poitiers (1356)

• English captured French king, John II.

• Shocked feudal society.

• Demonstrated English military strength.

• Heavy loss for France

• Led by Edward the Black Prince

Agincourt (1415)

• Major English victory.

• Led by Henry V.

• Infantry + discipline beat cavalry.

• Joined in war after break due to France Civil War.

• Muddy Battlefield

• Boosted English Morale

Orléans (1429)

• French victory inspired by Joan of Arc.

• Turning point in war.

• Boosted French morale.

Calais (English-held 1347–1558)

• Strategic port in France.

• Economic and military importance.

• Symbol of English ambitions.

• Battle of Crecy won it for England, holding it for 200 years.

Edward the Black Prince (1330–1376)

• English commander.

• Victories at Crécy and Poitiers.

• Model of medieval military leadership.

• Eldest son of Edward III

• Wore Black Armor

Henry V (r. 1413–1422)

• English king.

• Victory at Agincourt.

• Strengthened monarchy.

• Treaty of Troyes

• Heir to the French Crown through the treaty above.

Charles VI (r. 1380–1422)

• French king known for mental illness.

• Weak leadership early in war.

• France later revived under successors.

• During French Civil War

• Treaty of Troys (1420) - Made Henry V the successor of the French Crown

• Battle of Agincourt Loss

• Weak ahh king

Joan of Arc (1412–1431)

• Peasant claiming divine visions.

• Led French forces at Orléans.

• Executed; became national symbol.

• Boosted Morale in France

• Became a Saint

Parliament (England, 13th c.)

• Representative body.

• Approved taxation.

• Limited royal power.

• Two Bodies: House of Lords | House of Commons

• Not the best relationship with the King.

• Advisory to the King.

House of Commons

• Knights and townsmen.

• Grew in influence.

• Represented rising middle class.

• Lower House of Parliament

• Control of Taxation

• Limited Royal Authority

• Knights/Bourgeoisie

House of Lords

• Nobility and clergy.

• Preserved elite authority.

• Balanced Commons/Played as a Check

• Upper House of Parliament

• Aristocratic Influence

War of the Roses (1455–1487)

• English civil war over succession.

• Weakened nobility.

• Led to stronger monarchy (Tudors).

• New Monarch Rise Example

Estates General (France, 1302)

• Assembly of three estates.

• Rarely met.

• Failed to limit royal power.

• Clergy

• Nobility

• Everyone Else (did basically nothing/no influence)

Taille

• Direct French tax.

• Funded standing armies.

• Increased absolutism.

• Tension within France

• Royal Revenue

• Jacquerie Cause

Gabelle

• Salt tax in France (only peasants)

• Highly unpopular.

• Symbol of inequality.

• Royal Revenue

• Jaquerie Cause

German Electors (Golden Bull, 1356)

• Seven nobles elected emperor (7 Votes)

• Limited central authority.

• Fragmented Holy Roman Empire.

• Significant Political Power

Unam Sanctum (1302)

• Issued by Boniface VIII.

• Claimed papal supremacy.

• Sparked conflict with kings.

• Papul Bull

• Religion>Secular

• Vs. Phillip IV

Boniface VIII (r. 1294–1303)

• Asserted papal authority.

• Clashed with Philip IV.

• Weakened papacy.

• Tried to assert Religion > Secular, but lost.

• Would be killed by Phillip IV’s attacks.

Philip IV of France (r. 1285–1314)

• Taxed clergy.

• Forced papacy to Avignon.

• Strengthened monarchy.

• Showed Secular > Religion

• Clashed with Boniface VIII

• King of France

Council of Constance (1414–1418)

• Ended the Great Schism.

• Reasserted Church unity.

• Elected Martin V.

• By the Holy Roman Empire

• Condemned reformers like Jan Hus and John Wycliffe

Humanism (c. 1300s–1500s)

• Focus on classical learning, individual potential, and human experience.

• Emphasized education, rhetoric, and history.

• Grew from post-plague questioning of old systems.

• Revival of Greek and Roman Texts

• Human Potential

• God’s greatest gift were Humans

Giotto (c. 1267–1337)

• Artist who introduced realism and emotional depth.

• Broke from flat medieval art.

• Bridge between Middle Ages and Renaissance.

• “Father of Renaissance Art”

• Naturalism/Realism

• Human Expression

• Frescoes

• Perspective

Dante Alighieri (Divine Comedy, 1308–1321)

• Wrote in vernacular Italian.

• Explored Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven —> Divine Comedy

• Combined medieval theology with personal moral reflection.

• Italian Poet

• Literature access to the public

• Morality, afterlife, etc.

Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374)

• Scholar who revived classical texts.

• Focused on individual emotion and introspection.

• Known as the “Father of Humanism.”

• Mainly for only the elites.

• Individualism/Humanism

Giovanni Boccaccio (Decameron, 1353)

• Wrote realistic stories during the plague.

• Critiqued social and religious hypocrisy.

• Reflected early Renaissance attitudes.

• Author of Decameron

• Vernacular Language

Geoffrey Chaucer (Canterbury Tales, c. 1387–1400)

• Used vernacular English.

• Portrayed a wide range of social classes.

• Combined humor with social critique.

• “Canterbury Tales"

• English Poet

Christine de Pizan (1364–1430)

• First professional female writer in Europe.

• Defended women’s intelligence and moral worth.

• Early challenge to medieval gender norms.

• French

• “The Book of the City of Ladies”

• Men are equal to women in capability of educational exhibition?

• Early feminist thinker - Cassandra to Scientific Rev for Women

Avignon Papacy (1309–1377)

• Period when the pope resided in Avignon, France rather than Rome.

• Caused by conflict between Boniface VIII and Philip IV of France.

• Undermined papal independence and contributed to the decline of Church authority.

• Lasted for 70 years.

• Led to Great Schism.

Great Schism (1378–1417)

• Division of the Catholic Church with multiple popes claiming authority.

• Deeply damaged Church credibility and unity.

• Ended by the Council of Constance, which elected Martin V.

• 3 Popes at one point

• Papacy at Rome, Avignon, Council of Pisa

Decline of the Church (1300s–1400s)

• Caused by corruption, schism, and failure during the Black Death.

• Practices like simony, indulgences, pluralism, and absenteeism angered laypeople.

• Led to reform movements and personal religious devotion.

• Great Schism/Papacy Avignon

• Led to Secular > Religion

• Major loss of moral authority

Simony

• Selling Church offices for money.

• Undermined spiritual authority of clergy.

• Symbol of widespread Church corruption.

• Led to Protestant Reformation (Luther Critiquing)

Pluralism & Absenteeism

• Clergy holding multiple offices and neglecting their duties.

• Reduced quality of pastoral care.

• Increased resentment among the faithful.

• Led to Protestant Reformation (Luther Critiquing)

Indulgences

• Payments to reduce time in Purgatory.

• Exploited fear of salvation.

• Major source of criticism against the Church.

• John Tetzel (Major Indulgence Seller)

• Led to Protestant Reformation (Luther Critiquing)

Mysticism

• Emphasized direct, emotional experiences with God.

• Often bypassed Church hierarchy.

• Popular during periods of crisis and uncertainty.

• Catherine of Sienna Experience

Modern Devotion (14th–15th c.)

• Religious movement emphasizing inner piety and moral living.

• Rejected elaborate rituals and corruption.

• Influenced later reformers.

• Everyday life praying, not only in churches.

• Humility

• Inner Piety

Brothers of the Common Life

• Lay religious group connected to Modern Devotion.

• Focused on education, copying texts, and ethical behavior.

• Spread literacy and reform ideas.

Catherine of Siena (1347–1380)

• Christian mystic and reformer.

• Persuaded the pope (Pope Gregory XI) to return from Avignon to Rome.

• Symbolized moral authority within the Church.

• Mystic Experience

• Modern Devotion

• Religious Saint

Marsiglio of Padua (Defensor Pacis, 1324)

• Political thinker arguing authority comes from the people, not the pope.

• Rejected papal interference in secular government.

• Early secular political theory.

• Defender of Peace

• Cassandra for Secularism

Martin V

• Pope elected by the Council of Constance.

• Ended the Great Schism.

• Restored unity but not full trust in the Church.

• Single Pope, not 3 or 2

William of Occam (c. 1287–1347)

• Philosopher and theologian.

• Argued limits on papal power.

• Promoted reason and separation of church and state.

• Enlightenment Cassandra

Little Ice Age (c. 1300–1850)

• Period of cooler temperatures in Europe.

• Led to crop failures and famine.

• Weakened populations before the Black Death.

Three Calamities of the 14th Century

• Famine (Little Ice Age), Black Death, and war (Hundred Years’ War).

• Combined crises destabilized medieval society.

• Accelerated the end of feudalism.

Paradox of Calamity

• Despite devastation, survivors experienced higher wages and mobility.

• Labor shortages empowered peasants and workers.

• Helped create conditions for social and economic change.

Rise of Italian City-States (c. 1200s–1500s)

• Independent cities like Venice and Florence grew wealthy through trade.

• Weak feudal structures allowed urban independence.

• Became centers of Renaissance culture.

• Florence, Venice, Naples, Milan, and Papal Sates were the Big 5.

• Lots of Competition between the major ones.

• Politically Independent

Venice

• Maritime republic controlling Mediterranean trade.

• Wealth came from commerce and naval power.

• Politically stable compared to other city-states.

• Oligarchy

• Control Culture Commerce

Florence

• Banking and textile center.

• Home to powerful merchant families.

• Major center of Renaissance art and thought.

• Center of Art/Patrons

• Medici Family

• Woolen/Textiles

• Lots of social tensions

Condottieri

• Mercenary military leaders hired by city-states.

• Reflected political instability.

• Replaced feudal armies in Italy.

• Mainly Florence/Venice

• Profit over loyalty

Grandi

• Old noble elites in Italian cities.

• Often challenged by wealthy merchants.

• Represented traditional power.

• Aristocrats

• Clashed a lot with popolo grasso

Popolo grasso

• Wealthy merchant class.

• Controlled city governments.

• Funded art and culture.

• Clashed a lot with Grandi

Popolo minuto

• Poor laborers and artisans.

• Politically marginalized.

• Involved in revolts like the Ciompi.

New Monarchial Power (Late Middle Ages)

• Kings increased control over taxation and armies.

• Feudal nobles lost influence.

• Seen in France and England after the Hundred Years’ War.

• Spain As Well

• Professional Armies

New Inventions (1300s–1400s)

• Printing press, improved navigation, gunpowder weapons.

• Increased spread of ideas and literacy.

• Weakened traditional authority structures.

• Longbows/Cannons/Gunpowder —> Hundred Years’ War

Changes in Art and Literature

• Shift toward realism, human emotion, and individuality.

• Use of perspective and classical themes.

• Reflected humanist values.

• Northern Renaissance (some religion, not all)

• Everyday-life

• Secularism

Vernacular Language

• Writing in everyday spoken languages.

• Increased literacy and access to ideas.

• Used by Dante, Chaucer, and Boccaccio.

Divine Comedy — Dante Alighieri (1308–1321)

• Epic poem describing Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven.

• Written in vernacular Italian.

• Combined medieval theology with personal moral exploration.

Canterbury Tales — Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1387–1400)

• Collection of stories told by pilgrims.

• Written in vernacular English.

• Realistic, humorous portrayal of medieval society.

Major Trends:

• New Monarchs/Political Centralization (Spain, France, England)

• Religion to Secularism (Humanism)

• Big Man History/Elites

• Revival of Classics (Roman and Greek — Aristotle, Glane, Cicero, Ptolemy)

• Printing Press

• Oligarchic City States (Italy - Naples, Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal States)