Human Physiology U1 Exam Review

What are all the different monosaccharides?

• Fructose:

• Glucose:

• Galactose:

What are all the different disaccharides

• Lactose:

• Maltose:

• Sucrose:

What acronym can help remember mono and disaccharides

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What is glycogen?

What are glycerides?

Backbone of a lipid,

Can have 1, 2l or 3 fatty acids attached

Polyunsaturated fatty acids vs. Monounsaturated fatty acids vs. Unsaturated fatty acids

What are the categories of polyunsaturated fatty acids?

What are sterols?

In which stage does the heme site of erythrocytes get finalized?

Tertiary structure

Peptide bonds form when the ______ group of one amino acid joins the ______ of another amino acid.

amino, carboxyl

What are the 4 steps of protein structure?

• 1. Primary: Amino acids become peptides

• 2. Secondary: alpha helix and beta pleated sheets

• 3. Tertiary: Fibrous proteins and globular proteins (globular = enzymes)

• 4. Quarternary: Final stage

What stage of protein structure is hemoglobin finalized in?

Quarternary

Differentiate oligopeptide vs. polypeptide vs. proteins

• Oligo (few): 2-9 amino acids

• Polypeptide: 10-100 amino acids

• Proteins: >100 amino acids

What are the 9 essential amino acids?

• Histidine

• Isoleucine

• Leucine

• Lysine

• Methionine

• Phenylalanine

• Threonine

• Tryptophan

• Valine

What mnemonic helps remember the essential aas?

PVT. TIM HALL

What are Lipoproteins vs. Glycoproteins & Glycolipids?

Lipoproteins: Water soluble molecules that transport things in the blood stream

• LDL - carry fat and cholesterol to cells

• HDL - carry free cholesterol from body tissues to liver for breakdown

Glycoproteins & Glycolipids: Carbs bound to either proteins or lipids. Important components of cell membranes

What is the structure of nucleotides?

• 1+ phosphate groups

• A deoxy/ribose sugar

• A nitrogenous base

Label each part of this diagram:

Green = Phosphate Group

Blue = Nitrogenous Base

Purple = Deoxy/Ribose

Which purines match with which pyrimidines?

A - T/U

G - C

Where is DNA located vs. RNA

• DNA is found in the nucleolus of the nucleus

• RNA is found in the cytoplasm

• DNA is like headquarters/management, RNA is like the on the field construction

Briefly define the different types of RNA

• mRNA: Messenger RNA - resembles half a DNA molecule, Brings messages from DNA to ribosome to make proteins and amino acids

• tRNA - Transfer RNA - Transfers amino acids to ribosomes

• rRNA - Ribosomal RNA - Makes up RIBOSOME structure

What are factors that increase protein synthesis?

Eating protein, staying hydrated, strength training, normal thyroid hormone, growth hormone and anabolic steroids, catecholamines, taking leucine or glutamine supplements

What is a ligand?

Any molecule that binds to another molecule

Competitive vs. Irreversible Inhibitors

• Competitive: Competes with ligand by binding reversibly to site

• Irreversible: Binds to binding site irreversibly

Allosteric vs. Covalent modulators

• Allosteric: Binds to protein away from binding site and changes inactivity via inhibition or activation

• Covalent: Binds to a protein/enzyme to change its activity, structure, or function via covalent bonds

What are the 7 kinds of protein functions?

• Enzymes

• Transport

• Signal molecules: Ligands

• Receptors

• Binding proteins: Found mostly in extracellular fluid. They bind or transport molecules

• Immunoglobulins

• Regulatory proteins: turn cell processes on/off or up/down

What are possible factors of protein denaturing?

• Heat

• pH

• Alcohol

Where does anaerobic vs. aerobic respiration occur? What are the basics of those?

Anaerobic: Cytoplasm, Does glycolysis (converts glucose into 2 pyruvates and 2 ATP

Aerobic: Mitochondira, Does Citric acid Cycle (converts those 2 pyruvate into acetyl CoA)

What happens if there is NO oxygen available after glycolysis?

Pyruvate goes to the liver to be converted into lactic acid, then gets converted BACK into an acidic glucose thing

What happens if there IS oxygen available after glycolysis?

The pyruvate goes into citric acid cycle as Acetyl CoA → Makes high energy electrons (and FADH2 and NADH) that go into the ETC where 26-28 ATP are produced

What are the caveats of the citric acid cycle?

It means that aerobic respiration takes longer because in order to process BOTH of glycolysis’ pyruvates it needs to do 2 citric acid cycles

What is Gluconeogenesis?

• The birth of new glucose from non-glucose precursors like the glycerol portions of lipids

What is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

Things naturally go from a state of order to a state of disorder which increases over time

What is protein Catabolism and Deamination?

• Protein Catabolism: Pulling out a peptide bond from a protein, ultimately separating the amino acid and peptide bond

• Deamination: Removing the amino group from an amino acid. This results in ammonia = an organic acid (that can be used in glycolysis)

What is the Cori Cycle?

Takes the organic acid produced from deamination and converts it back into glucose, BUT you need 6 ATP and it only makes 2 ATP

Only used when no other carbs are available

What is Lipolysis?

• When you take a glycerol backbone out of a triglyceride

• The glycerol then goes to glycolysis to make 2 ATP and 2 pyruvates

Differentiate between Absorptive and Post-Absorptive states

• Absorptive = fed = anabolic

• Post-Absorptive = fasted = catabolic

List THE enzymes… good luck!

Oxidoreductase enzymes:

Dehydrogenase

Reductase

Oxidase

Hydrolase enzymes:

Peptidase

Lipase

Saccharidase

Dehydratase

Lyase enzymes:

Transaminase

Aminase

Phosphorylase

Kinase

Phosphatase

Deaminase

Ligase enzymes:

Synthetase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Transfer electrons from donor to oxygen

Oxidase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Remove electrons and H+ ions

Dehydrogenase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Gain electrons

Reductase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Perform hydrolysis on large molecules

Peptidase, saccharidase, and lipase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Perform Dehydration Synthesis

Dehydratase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Do exchange reactions of phosphates/amino groups

Kinase

Transaminase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Do addition reactions of phosphates/amino groups

Phosphorylase

Aminase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Do subtraction reactions of phosphates/amino groups

Phosphatase

Deaminase

What enzyme(s) does this function?

Do ligation (joining two substrates using ATP energy)

Synthetase

Differentiate Glucostatic vs. Lipostatic theory

• Glucostatic: Your blood glucose levels control your feeding and satiety centers

• Lipostatic: Your body fat % determines your feeding and satiety centers (leptin)

Differentiate Calorimetry vs. Indirect Calorimetry

• Calorimetry: Measures heat given off by burning a food to ash

• Indirect: Measures O2 consumption vs. CO2 production