Feminism

Oakley (1981) - Liberal Feminism: Sex, Gender

Ann Oakley (1981) distinguishes between sex (biological differences) and gender (culturally constructed differences between 'masculine' and 'feminine'). She notes that gender roles vary according to time and place, with comparative studies revealing great differences in expectations and attitudes towards men and women in different countries and historical periods.

Somerville (2000) - Liberal Feminism: Socialization, Family

Jennifer Somerville (2000) argues that changes in socialization and culture are beginning to reduce gender divisions within the family. She identifies the rise of the 'new man' (husband based on equality values) and notes that while women are still disadvantaged, they have more choice in marriage and work roles, moving towards greater equality in household and relationship roles.

Brownmiller (1976) - Radical Feminism: Domestic, Violence

Susan Brownmiller (1976) argues that domestic violence, male violence against women, is central to male supremacy. Domestic violence, rape and sexual harassment are all part of the systematic oppression of women, asserting that male violence, or the threat of it, controls all women.

Firestone (1970) - Radical Feminism: Oppression, Reproduction

Shulamith Firestone (1970) argues that the roots of women's oppression lie in their biological ability to have children, which creates their dependency on men. She believes women can be emancipated (freed) only through the abolition of the family and the power relations that go with it, suggesting that reproductive technology is key to liberating women from male control.

Greer (2000) - Radical Feminism: Male, Matrilocal

Germaine Greer (2000) asserts that women always suffer from male power if they live in the same household, with men's oppression exercised through intimate domestic and sexual relationships. She suggests that women must live separately from men in 'matrilocal households' to truly remove power from men.

Barrett (1980) - Radical Feminism: Familism, Capitalist

Michèle Barrett (1980) analyzes the ideology of familism, which links women's domestic feelings and motivation to the capitalist system. She argues that the nuclear family is perceived as an ideal place for women to find fulfillment through motherhood and the housewife role, and that a feminist revolution must eliminate expectations about women's family roles to ensure equal sharing of domestic labor.

Ansley (1972) - Radical Feminism: Takers, Shit

Lee Ansley (1972) coined the phrase 'women are takers of shit', meaning wives absorb anger that would otherwise be focused on capitalist bosses. She argues that women suffer at the hands of alienated and frustrated husbands, with domestic violence serving to reduce male frustration. She highlights that rape was not legally considered a crime within marriage until 1991 in the UK (compared to 1922 in the former Soviet Union).

Hooks (1997) - Difference Feminism: False, Universality

bell hooks (1997) critiques feminism for its 'false universality', arguing that the idea of a 'unified' form of gender oppression is misguided because oppression is not experienced equally by all women due to differences in race, class, and sexuality.

Calhoun - Difference Feminism: Family, Diversity

Calhoun, influenced by postmodernism, argues that family diversity leads to female exploitation. She states that family life within patriarchal, heterosexual marriages is problematic, whereas lesbian marriage and mothering can avoid exploitative relationships. She also notes that anxiety among heterosexuals about gays and lesbians can be attributed to attributing their problems to 'corrupting outsiders or outlaws'.

Tuchman (1978) - Media: Symbolically, Annihilates

Gaye Tuchman (1978) argues that the media symbolically annihilates women by underrepresenting them, trivializing their achievements, or depicting them negatively.

Mulvey (1975) - Media: Male, Gaze

Laura Mulvey (1975) introduced the concept of the male gaze, explaining that women are objectified and subjected to a patriarchal perspective in visual media, designed for male viewing pleasure.

Billington (1998) - Media: Gender, Stereotypes

Billington (1998) suggests that the media portrays masculinity as dominant and femininity as subordinate, thereby reinforcing gender stereotypes.

Armstrong (1993) - Religion: Patriarchal, Ideology

Karen Armstrong (1993) argues that religion serves to reinforce a patriarchal ideology in four main ways:

1. Religious organisations are often headed by men: Women are excluded from being priests in most religions.
2. Places of Worship: Women are often segregated from men and sit behind blinds while men assume less central and more religious spaces.
3. Sacred Texts: Largely feature male gods, and stories reinforce stereotypical images of women.
4. Religious Laws: Women have fewer rights, impacting areas like access to divorce, number of spouses, and dress codes.