colonies

maritime empire

A state that extends its power through control of sea routes, trade, and overseas territories.

colony

A territory under the political or economic control of a distant state.

Hispaniola

The first island colonized by Spain in the Americas, where the encomienda system began and enslaved Indigenous and African labor was used for plantation and mining work.

jamestown

An English settlement that developed a plantation economy based on tobacco cultivation, leading to the introduction of African slavery in English North America.

aztec empire

A Mesoamerican state that collected tribute from subject regions and controlled trade networks, using a hierarchical society where labor and goods flowed to the center, until Spanish forces dismantled it.

incan emprire

A South American state that managed a large territory through a centralized bureaucracy and labor tribute system called the mita, supporting agriculture, mining, and infrastructure projects.

cuzco

The capital city of the Inca Empire, serving as the political, religious, and economic center that coordinated trade and labor across the empire.

llama

A domesticated animal in the Andes used for transport, wool, and as a source of labor in trade and agricultural production.

new spain

A Spanish colonial territory established in the Americas that managed mining and agriculture through systems like the encomienda, relying on Indigenous and African labor.

Tenochtitlan

The capital of the Aztec Empire, a major urban and trade center built on Lake Texcoco that showcased advanced engineering and served as the empire’s political and economic hub.

mexico city 

A colonial city built by the Spanish on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, serving as the political and economic center of New Spain and a hub for trade, administration, and resource extraction.

lima 

A Spanish colonial capital in South America that became the administrative and commercial center of the Viceroyalty of Peru, managing silver trade and colonial governance.

Guangzhou

A Chinese port city that served as a major center for international trade, especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties, where foreign merchants conducted limited commerce under state control.

nagasaki

A Japanese port city used for controlled trade with Europeans and Chinese during periods of isolation, serving as Japan’s main link to global commerce.

goa

A coastal city in India that became a Portuguese colonial base and key center for Indian Ocean trade and missionary activity.

seville

A Spanish port city that served as the main hub for trade between Spain and its American colonies, controlling the flow of silver and goods through the Casa de Contratación.

vera cruz 

A Spanish colonial port on the Gulf of Mexico that became a major point for exporting silver and importing European goods to New Spain.

acapulco 

A Pacific port in New Spain that served as the main terminal for the Manila galleons, connecting trade between Asia and the Americas through the exchange of silver and luxury goods.

Amsterdam

A European trade center that became a major hub of global commerce and finance, supported by joint-stock companies and extensive maritime trade networks.

treaty if Tordesillas

An agreement between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, that divided newly explored lands outside Europe along a set boundary to prevent conflict over overseas territories.

Bartolome de las casas

A Spanish priest who criticized the mistreatment of Indigenous peoples in the Americas and advocated for reforms to limit forced labor and violence under Spanish colonial rule.

florentine codex

A 16th-century ethnographic record created by a Spanish friar and Indigenous informants that documented Aztec culture, society, and the effects of Spanish conquest.

viceroys

an official who rules a country, province, or colony as the representative of a monarch

viceroyalties 

Officials appointed by European monarchs to govern colonial territories in their name, overseeing administration, justice, and economic activities

audiencias

Colonial courts established by Spanish authorities to administer justice and oversee officials, serving as a check on the power of viceroys.

haciendas

Large estates in Spanish America that produced agricultural goods for local consumption or export, often relying on coerced or low-paid Indigenous labor.

rio di janeiro

A Portuguese colonial port city in Brazil that became a major center for the sugar trade and later for gold exports, serving as an economic and administrative hub.

new amsterdam

A Dutch colonial settlement established as a trading center on the Atlantic coast of North America, later taken by the English and renamed New York.

manila 

A Spanish colonial port city in the Philippines that became the center of transpacific trade, linking Asian goods with American silver through the Manila galleon system.

boers 

Dutch settlers in southern Africa who established farming communities and relied on enslaved and Indigenous labor for agricultural production.

cape colony 

A Dutch settlement in southern Africa founded as a supply station for ships, later developing into a colony with an economy based on agriculture and enslaved labor.

Sociedad de Castas

Social class system in Spanish America based on race and birthplace.

Elites

People with the most wealth, land, and power in society.

Creoles

People of Spanish descent born in the Americas; second to peninsulares.

Peninsulares

Spaniards born in Spain; top of the colonial social hierarchy.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattoes

People of mixed European and African ancestry.

Zambos

People of mixed African and Indigenous ancestry.

African Diaspora

The spread of Africans through the slave trade across the Americas and other regions.

Vodun

Religion in the Caribbean blending African beliefs with Christianity

Cult of Saints

Catholic practice in Latin America of honoring saints who represent local or Indigenous traditions.

Virgin of Guadalupe

Image of the Virgin Mary that became a national and religious symbol in Mexico, blending Catholic and Indigenous beliefs.