LDSP 442 Final

Justifications for norm-differentiation: Leadership Exceptionalism

There is something morally special about leaders or leadership that supports relativism or makes morality relative to their position 

Rigid Leadership

The leader and at least some of the followers are still and unyielding. They may be competent but are unable or unwilling to adapt to new ideas, information, or changing times

Callous Leadership

The leader are at least some of the followers are mean and the needs of the followers are discussed

Intemperate Leadership

The leader lacks self-control and is aided and abetted by the followers who are unwilling or unable to effectively intervene

Corrupt Leadership

When the leader and at least some of the followers lie, cheat, or steal, to a degree that exceeds the norm. They put self-interest ahead of the public interest

Evil Leadership

• The leader and at least some followers commit atrocities, they use pain as an instrument of power. The harm done to men, women, and children is severe rather than slight. Harm can be physical, psychological, or both

Insular Leadership

The leader and at least some followers minimize or disregard the health welfare of those outside the group or organization for which they are directly responsible 

Deontology

Duty, rules, universal principles

Categorical Imperative

absolute moral laws that apply universally. Universality, Humanity, Autonomy.

Norm Differentiation

• Kant:

  •  norms should be universal 

  • Because moral duties are not contingent on social differences 

• Mill: 

  • More accepting of norm differentiation because it leads to greatest happiness or aligns with social contexts 

  • Mill more focused on outcomes so- if norm differentiating can be justified by the specific needs of a group 

Leadership Exceptionalism

• Kant: 

  • Critical of it 

  • Because it implies that certain individuals are morally superior 

  • Emphasizes that leadership should be based on reason, duty, and respect for others’ autonomy, not just personal qualities or abilities 

• Mill: 

  • May support leadership exceptionalism if leaders actions contribute to the greater good 

  • LDSP should be judged by outcomes, not the leaders personal qualities 

John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism

• The right action is one that serves the most people 

• The belief that the value of a thing or action is determined by its utility 

• The greatest good for the greatest number of people 

Bentham Foundation Principle of Morality

• Principle of Utility:

  • Approves or disapproves of an action based on the amount of pain or pleasure 

    • (right action max pleasure, min pain) 

  • The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice 

Bentham Act and Rule

• Act Utilitarianism: 

  • Evaluate every action 

    • The right act = brings the best result 

• Kinds of Pleasure: 

  • There is NO rank → all pleasures are equal 

Mill Foundations of Principle Morality

• Greatest Happiness Principle: 

  • The right action is one that promotes the GREATEST HAPPINESS for the greatest number of people

  • Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain

Mill Act and Rule

• Rule Utilitarianism: 

  • Focuses on following rules that in general lead to the greatest happiness 

  • These rules, when followed, lead to the best overall outcomes for society, even if individual actions may differ in their immediate results 

Mill Kinds of Pleasure

• They are RANKED 

  • Such as moral or mental, higher (intellectual/moral) or lower (physical pleasure),

  • Quality of the pleasure over quantity

Principle of Morality

Bentham - Act Utilitarianism

Mill - Rule Utilitarianism

Bernard Williams

• Thesis: 

  • When applied to certain cases, utilitarianism has implications that clash strongly ith our intuitions about right and wrong 

    • A utilitarian cannot effectively appeal to “remote effect” to avoid these counterintuitive

George Case

• George: 

  • Chemist being offered a job in chemical warfare but does not support chemical warfare yet needs the financial support for his family 

    • Utilitarianism: 

      • Take the job because it is benefiting your family 

      • This is the option that williams supports for this case 

    • Deontologist (Kant): 

      • Do NOT take the job because george does not support chemical warfare and he has a DUTY to no compromise his beliefs 

Cosmopolitanism

• The belief that all people are entitled to equal respect and consideration, no matter what their citizenship status or other affiliations happen to be 

  • Utilitarianism is a branch of cosmopolitan.

Communitarian

• A philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community.

Cosmopolitan Moral Theories

• Moral theory in which the particular end to which group members are committed are ultimately subordinate to more general social ends such as human welfare 

Mill and Rule-Breaking

• Rules do not bind us but should still resist expectations to these rules 

• We should resist because of the consequences of rule breaking 

  • 1. Our actions have minimal impact on the common good 

  • 2. Leaders will likely miss-identify maximizing opportunities for rule-breaking

Transformational leadership and Mill

• Leading with a greater concern with end-values than with modal values 

• End = liberty, justice, equality 

• Means = honesty, responsibility, fairness

• Aka more concerned with cosmo values than moral rules 

Gary Yukl

• Characteristics of Managerial Effectiveness 

  • 1. Higher energy level and stress tolerance 

  • 2. Higher self-confidence 

  • 3. Internal locus of control 

  • 4. Power Motivation 

    • Higher “power need”

  • 5. Achievement orientation 

  • 6. Low need for affiliation

  • 7. Greater emotional stability and maturity 

  • 8. Greater personal integrity 

Hexis

Active Disposition. What you are included to do when virtue is relevant

Function Argument

• Virtues are those qualities that permit us to fulfill our function or purpose 

  • For humans: 

    • To secure our greatest good or end (eudaimonia), which is distinctly rational → good reasons 

Eudaimonia

• Flourishing in accordance with virtue 

• Acquired because it consists of virtue 

• Distinctly human, reserved for the mature 

How virtues are acquired: Intellectual

At birth and growing through teaching

How virtues are acquired: Moral

result of habit

Virtue Mean

In between vice deficiency and vice excess 

• The degree of passion 

• Phronesis = practical wisdom

From ignorance, by reason of ignorance

• Everything done because of ignorance is NOT voluntary 

• You don’t know what you’re doing wrong so it isn’t ignorance 

Non-voluntary actions

Bad actions done by choice, but because all options otherwise offered were worse

Application to leadership and norm differentiation

• Leaders are adept to misjudging their moral characters on the grounds of uniqueness bias 

  • The differential between the expectations leaders have for themselves vs others 

  • Fundamental attribution theory 

  • More likely in leaders because of a lack of critical feedback and more opportunity for showing positive qualities

• Leaders are bad at judging their character and ability 

• Very few people have virtues 

Situationism

Situations are the most important consideration for how we act

Price’s two virtues

1. Emotional stability and morality

2. Personal integrity

Vice

Lack of relevant knowledge, if you kneew what was good, you would do it

Intemperance

Excessive pleasure overtakes reason

Temperance

1. Being ruled by others well

2. Being able to rule oneself

Two ways intemperance threatens leadership (self-rule and rule by others)

• Sophrosyne: 

  • Soundness of mind, orderly behavior (temperance) 

• Tripartite soul: 

  • Appetitive, physical desires

Callicles

• Disagrees with self-rule 

• Believes in hedonism 

  • Constant and maximization of pleasure (leaky jar) 

Necessity

Use immoral means to get the desired ends

Seeming over being

• What one thinks of  a leader matters more than what the leader is actually like 

• Feared v. loved 

  • Better to be feared than loved 

Normative Traits

can possess some virtues by nature. But should be seen over being

Experiment, replications, and implications

• Obedience under authority 

• Everyone administered the lethal shock 

  • Even though they knew it was wrong and causing pain to the participants (actors) 

Eichmann

• Assigned to Jewish deportations to killing camps 

• He was just given orders, ignorance 

  • But charged for murders because of the role he played

Banality of Evil

• Ordinary, obvious 

• We think of classics when we think of evil 

  • Ex. disney villains 

Totalitarian context

• He as in delusion and a dictator told him to do it 

• Do it or die basically 

Cowboy economy

the open economy of limitless resources

Spaceship earth

everyone on earth working together for the greater good

lifeboat earth

rich nations in the boat, poor nations drowning

What to do in the case of overpopulation

Let life and death happen

Food aid and the ratchet effect

Food aid keeps people alive = more people to take care of and the crisis is worse 

Peter Singer’s argument

• If we can prevent something bad from happening and it’s moral, we gotta do it 

• We also need to change the ways we look at moral issues 

The Drowning Child Example

• Seeing the child drown, you should do it 

• So if you don’t see it, you should still do it 

• If you know something’s going on, stop and help it 

Moral Mediocrity

• We calibrate our moral obligations based on what other people do and want to be in the middle of it 

What to do in the face of bad leadership

• 1. We can't stop bad leadership by improving character 

• 2. We can't stop bad leadership without stopping or slowing it 

• 3. We can't stop bad leadership by sticking heads in the sand

Optimism and the Enlightenment

• As we acquire knowledge, we will advance as a society 

• … we have advanced in some ways but doesn’t affect social change or good character