Criminal Psychology Edexcel GCSE

How does positive reinforcement explain criminal behaviour?

Being praised for fighting or anti-social behaviour can cause us to have more criminal behaviour

Define operant conditioning

Learning a behaviour from the consequences of our actions

Define classical conditioning

Learning a behaviour from associations made

Define positive reinforcement

When something positive is received to encourage behaviour from being repeated

How does negative reinforcement explain criminal behaviour?

We are likely to be aggressive and commit crimes if repeating that behaviour gets rid of something unpleasant.

Define negative reinforcement

When something negative is removed to encourage a behaviour to be repeated

How does positive punishment prevent criminal behaviour?

When criminals are giving a negative consequence for their actions, they are more likely to stop doing it.

How does negative punishment prevent criminal behaviour?

Removing something pleasant from a criminal due to their behaviour can prevent them from acting that way again.

Who developed the operant conditioning theory on criminal behaviour?

Skinner (1948)

What is a primary reinforcer?

Items satisfy a biological need such as food and water.

What is a secondary reinforcer?

Items not of biological need but we learn to associate it with a primary reinforcer. (e.g. credit cards, grades, tokens)

Strengths to Operant conditioning theory

-Can help explain a lot of diffrent crimes like theft and murder. Also how social approval can be a strong reinforcer.

-Practical applications: Helps with how criminal justice operates.

- Empirical Evidence: A lot of research (Skinner's rats") to support this theory

Weaknesses to Operant conditioning

-Reductionist: Neglects biological and personality factors

-Does not explain behaviour that is reproduced in the absence of reinforcement or punishment.

Who developed the social learning theory for crimnal behaviour?

Bandura in 1977

How does social learning theory explain why people become criminals?

Behaviour is the consequence of observing and modeling others around us. We are motivated to copy those with similar characteristics ergo role models.

What is the modelling process of the social learning theory?

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Reproduction

4. Motivation

5. Identification

What is attention in the modelling process? (1st step)

Must pay attention to the behaviour

What is retention in the modelling process? (2nd step)

Must be able to store or retain the info and behaviour that is observed.

What is reproduction in the modelling process? (3rd step)

To model the new behaviour, you need to be able to reproduce it.

What is motivation in the modelling process? (4th step)

Being more likely to reproduce behaviour if you want to do it or see someone else being rewarded for it (vicarious).

Define vicarious reinforcment

When the role model is seen being rewarded for this behaviour, we will choose to copy it in hope of getting the same reward.

What is identification in this modelling process? (5th step)

Adopting the beliefs of the role model temporarily.

What are strengths of social learning theory for criminality?

-Bandura found that young children copy aggresion when exposed to an agressive role model. Especially if they were the same sex or rewarded

-Explains behaviour that is learned in the absence of reinforcement. We can simply watch and imitate.

What are weaknesses of social learning theory for criminality?

-The long-term effects of exposure to aggression cannot be ethically measured

-Doesn't explain all criminal behaviour like murder (an opportunistic crime) and fraud, done for financial gain.

What did Lombroso (1890) say about how biology can explain criminality?

criminals had certain body types & facial characteristics that indicated whether they were a criminal & what type of crime they would commit.

This has been discredited.

What were some of the features on criminals' faces, as suggested by Lombroso (1890)?

-High cheekbones

-Sloping foreheads

-Asymmetrical face

-Lots of hair

Strengths to Lombroso (1890)

Evidential support

Weaknesses to Lombroso (1890)

Doesn't consider environmental factors.

Define what is meant by "Temperament Personality"

The nature someone is born with, which affects our behaviour.

What did Eysneck (1964) suggest about how criminals?

There are certain personality types that influence the likelihood of someone becoming a criminal.

What is extraversion?

Outgoing, sociable behavior.

What is introversion?

Reserved, calm and quiet behaviour.

What is neuroticism?

Emotional stability (anxiety, tension)

Difference between stable and unstable neuroticism?

Stable: does not overeact and is less emotionally affected.

Unstable: highly overeactive and highly emotional.

What is psychoticism?

Lacking empathy, antisocial and aggressive personality.

What was EPQ?

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

What is a PEN personality according to the personality theory?

P - High psychoticism

E - High extroversion

N - High unstable neuroticism

What is socialisation?

Being punished for anti-social behaviour. In people with PEN, they don't associate anti-social behaviour with the anxiety of being punished.

What are strengths of the Personality Theory?

1) INCREASES INTERNAL VALIDITY

[SUPPORTING EVIDENCE]

Farrington et al (1982) - reviewed lots of studies that compared offenders with non-offenders

> He found that there was a relationship between High P & N scores & criminality.

2) Holistic study

• Combines biological, psychological & social factors explaining criminality into one theory

Weaknesses to Personality Theory

-Social conditions, like poverty, are more likely to cause criminal behaviour than the type of nervous system we possess.

-self-reported data and therefore biased.

-Only offenders who have been caught and not successful ones therefore unreliable.

What is recidivism?

The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend

What is meant by the term, "rehabilitative"?

Program designed to help offenders rather than punish them.

What is period of detention/custody in terms of prisons?

A prison sentence that changes in relation to the seriousness of the crime.

What is a prison?

A place where offenders are denied civil liberties, like freedom.

What principles are often used in prison?

Operant conditioning principles

-Positive punishment can be used to prevent offenders from offending again.

Explain the uses of reinforcement in prisons.

Positive: prison routine and friendship

Negative: act as a deterrent (discouraging offending behaviour).

Strengths to Prisons

-Removes criminal from public spaces so they do not have the opportunity to commit a crime as they are highly regulated

-Keeps the public safe

Weaknesses to Prisons

• 25% recidivism in first year of release.

• Prisoners are exposed to criminal role models and return to crime after release to financially support themselves.

• Humanitarian views would argue rehabilitation is better than imprisonment.

What is community sentencing?

When an offender serves a sentence involving giving back to their community rather than going to prison for their crime

What are the strengths of community sentencing?

-It is negative reinforcement as they have avoided the unpleasant situation of prison.

-Less likely to reoffend if not exposed to criminal influences.

What are the weaknesses of community sentencing?

• Ineffective form of punishment as recidivism rates are over 30%. Likelihood of reoffending is high during and after.

• Low success rate → over 10% of offenders failing to complete community sentencing.

What is restorative justice?

When offender and victim meet; the purpose is for the offender to realize their actions and accept responsibility.

Strengths to Restorative Justice.

-High victim satisfaction rate of 85%

-14% reduction in recidivism when using restorative justice. However, the offender may have already been contemplating a crime-less life.

Weaknesses to Restorative Justice

-Process causes distress to both offender and victim.

-Time consuming and costly but not more than the cost involved in dealing with reoffending.

What is the token economy program?

Form of behaviour modification by prisoners being rewarded for prosocial behaviour. The tokens are secondary reinforcers. The program is based on operant conditioning.

For Token Economy to work

-Rewards must be genuinely valued

-tokens should be given out as soon as pro social behaviour is displayed.

Weaknesses to Token Economy Program

-Limited rehabilitative value as they do not prevent recidivism. They only control prison behaviour.

-Failure of staff to give out tokens can result in antisocial behavior. Reinforcement for antisocial behaviour many be stronger from the other inmates.

What are strengths of token economy? (Include a finding)

1) Fairly economical and can be administered by prison staff

[SUPPORTING EVIDENCE]

2) Hobbs et al. (1976) - Evidence of short-term increase in pro-social behaviour in three prisons for young-offenders

What is anger management in prisons?

Rehabilitation for offenders who've commited violent crimes. CBT to help control their anger.

What are the three types of therapies in anger management?

Cognitive preparation: reflects on why they are angry

Skills Acquisition: Offender learns new skills to help control their anger.

Application Practice: Practice new skills in triggering moments.

What are strengths of anger management?

1) Offenders are carefully selected to receive treatment.

[SUPPORTING EVIDENCE]

Dowden et al. - High-risk offenders who underwent anger management were less likely to reoffend than those who did not

What are weaknesses of anger management? (include findings)

1) Offenders need to be highly motivated

[REFUTING EVIDENCE]

Marnie Rice - Psychopaths became more dangerous after Anger Management because they had acquired new skills on the program that helped them manipulate others

Howells et. al - No improvement, only educational benefit about anger

Bandura et al (1961) - Aims

1) See if children will imitate aggressive  and non-aggressive role model behaviour, even if they are not rewarded for it.

2) See if the children would be more likely to copy same-sex role models than  opposite-sex role models

3) See if boys would be more aggressive than girls, particularly if exposed to the aggressive male role model

Bandura et al (1961) - What was the sample?

72 children (36 boys, 36 girls)

• Between 37 & 69 months

• Stanford University Nursery School

What were the 3 conditions that they tested with the children?

1. Aggressive role model of both sexes

2. Non-aggressive role model

3. Control group with no model.

Describe the procedure of Bandura et al

-The children would observe either a male or female role model.

-For each model, there was equal amount of boys and girls (6).

-The bobo doll was placed in another room after the children have observed the role model.

-Their behaviour was later recorded for the 20 mins they were in that other room.

Bandura et al. - What were the findings? (5)

1) Participants in the aggressive groups reproduced more physical & verbal aggressive behaviour than those in the non-aggressive groups.  

2) Boys imitated more physical aggression than girls.

3) There was no significant difference in  the imitation of verbal aggression between the sexes.  

4) Boys imitated more physical and verbal aggression after being exposed to the male aggressive role model than to the female aggressive role model.  

5) Participants in non-aggressive conditions engaged in significantly more non aggressive play activities or sat quietly.

Bandura et al (1961) - What were the conclusions?

1) Exposure to aggressive adult role models may serve to weaken inhibitory responses in children & increase likelihood that they will give aggressive reactions.

2) Children appear to learn by imitation and more likely if the adult role model is male, regardless of whether the child is male or female. 

Bandura et al. (1961) - What are the strengths?

1) INCREASES RELIABILITY

Standardised procedures and controlled environment.

→ can be replicated and results more consistent

Bandura et al. (1961) - What are the weaknesses?

1) LOWERS INTERNAL VALIDITY

Demand characteristics as they may have assumed that they should've copied aggression.

2) UNETHICAL

It could’ve made them more aggressive long-term

Charlton et al (2000) - What was the aim?

Investigate the impact of television on the social behaviour of  young children.  

Charlton et al. (2000) - What was the procedure?

-On St. Helena island, the researchers set up video cameras in primary schools to observe playground behaviour.

-Examining anti-social behaviour.

-Came back 5 years later and filmed again but with different set of children.

Charlton et al. (2000) - What were the behaviour findings?

1) Only 9/64 comparisons were statistically significant.  

2) 2/9 showed a statistically significant decrease in anti-social behaviour in the post-television phase compared to the pre-television phase 

3) 5/9 showed a statistically significant decrease in pro-social behaviour in the  post-television phase compared to the pre-television phase.  

4) 2/9 showed a statistically significant increase in pro-social behaviour in the  post-television phase compared to the pre-television phase  

Charlton et al. (2000) - What were the behaviour findings?

1) Boys committed 4 times more anti-social acts than girls

2) Pro-social behaviour took place approximately twice as much as anti-social behaviour. 

Charlton et al. (2000) - What was the sample?

~160 school children aged 3-8 years old on St. Helena

Charlton et al. (2000) - What were the conclusions?

1) The close-knit community of the island was vigilant & supervised behaviour of children → may have contributed to children’s good behaviour

2) Television did not appear to influence behaviours such as hitting, fighting,  pushing or kicking

3) Boys are more anti-social in their play than girls but this is not related to television

Strengths and Weaknesses to Charlton et al (2000)

STRENGTH: Natural environment equals high ecological validity

WEAKNESS: Limited sample to just this community, is not generalisable.

Strengths to Token Economy

-Fairly economical and can be administered by prison staff

-Evidence of short-term increase in three prisons for young-offenders (Holt & Hobbs, 1976)

Weaknesses to Anger Management

-Psychopaths became more dangerous after Anger Management because they had acquired new skills on the program that helped them manipulate others more effectively (Marnie Rice, 1977).

-No improvement, only educational benefit (Kevin Howells et al. 2005)

-Offenders need to be highly motivated.

Kevin Howells et al, 2005

Improvement was not found other than treated offenders having a higher understanding of anger which suggest an educational benefit.

Marnie Rice, 1977

Psychopaths became more dangerous after Anger Management because they had acquired new skills on the program that helped them manipulate others more effectively