AP lang flashcards #10

logical fallacies

Texas Sharpshooter

Where similarities in data are overemphasized while differences are ignored to draw a conclusion

Moving the Goalposts

When someone who is losing an argument changes the criteria for what would constitute a win after the other person has already met the original criteria.

Definist Fallacy

Defining a term in a biased, loaded, or questionable way to support one's own argument, making it seem stronger or the opposing view seem weaker.

Etymological Fallacy

The incorrect assumption that a word's current meaning is the same as its original or historical meaning.

False Balance

Where opposing viewpoints are presented as equally valid, even when the evidence heavily favors one side. 

It often arises from a misguided attempt to appear unbiased, leading to the misrepresentation of facts by giving undue weight to fringe or unsubstantiated opinions

Hasty Generalization

A conclusion is drawn from a small or unrepresentative sample of evidence. Instead of using sufficient evidence, it "jumps to a conclusion" and often relies on stereotypes or anecdotes to make a broad claim about a whole group, population, or phenomenon.

Hedging

Where an argument is systematically weakened with vague language to avoid counter-evidence and make refutation difficult.

Hyperbolic Discounting

The tendency to prefer smaller, immediate rewards over larger, delayed ones, and it can be a cognitive fallacy because it leads to poor, inconsistent, and often irrational decisions

Hypostatization

When an abstract concept or idea is treated as if it were a concrete, real entity with physical properties. This fallacy treats metaphors or hypothetical constructs as if they were literal things, leading to flawed reasoning.

Lack of Proportion Fallacy

When an argument wrongly assumes that variance from a supposed balance or "levelness" is an exceptional state that must have a significant cause. 

It involves exaggerating or downplaying evidence to make a claim seem more or less significant than it is, sometimes as a form of deception by creating an unequal comparison

Loaded Question

A question that contains an unjustified or biased assumption, and it forces the person answering to accept this assumption by answering directly.

Loaded Language

The use of words with strong emotional connotations to influence an audience instead of using a logical argument.

Proof Surrogate

Where a claim is presented as evidence for itself, using words that imply proof exists without actually providing any.

Scapegoating

One person or group is unfairly blamed as the sole cause of a complex problem, often to divert attention from the real issues or to avoid self-reflection

Selective Attention

When a person focuses on specific, often irrelevant or misleading, information while ignoring other, contradictory evidence. 

It's a cognitive bias that can lead to fallacious arguments by cherry-picking data to support a predetermined conclusion