Neuroscience Lecture: Nervous System, Brain Anatomy, and Research Methods

A complete set of 166 question-and-answer flashcards covering the central and peripheral nervous systems, major brain structures, their functions, and common neuroscience research methods.

What is the central nervous system (CNS)?

The brain and the spinal cord.

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

It connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

What is the somatic nervous system?

Axons that convey messages from sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles.

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A system that controls the heart, intestines, and other organs.

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

What does the sympathetic nervous system do?

Prepares organs for vigorous activity (fight or flight) by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

Where are sympathetic ganglia located?

Along the left and right sides of the spinal cord.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

Facilitates non-emergency responses and decreases functions increased by the sympathetic system.

What is the structure of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Long preganglionic axons from the spinal cord and short postganglionic fibers to organs.

When is the parasympathetic system dominant?

During relaxed states.

What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic system primarily use?

Acetylcholine.

What neurotransmitter does the sympathetic system primarily use?

Norepinephrine.

What is the spinal cord?

A part of the CNS inside the spinal column that communicates with the body except the head.

What information do dorsal roots carry?

Sensory information into the spinal cord.

What information do ventral roots carry?

Motor commands from the spinal cord to the body.

Where are sensory neuron cell bodies located?

In the dorsal root ganglia outside the spinal cord.

What is gray matter in the spinal cord?

Densely packed cell bodies and dendrites located in the center.

What is white matter in the spinal cord?

Myelinated axons that carry information to and from the brain.

What does each spinal segment do?

Sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands.

What are the three major divisions of the vertebrate brain?

Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

What does the hindbrain consist of?

The medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

What structures make up the brainstem?

Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and other central structures.

Where is the medulla located?

Just above the spinal cord as an enlarged continuation of it.

What vital reflexes are controlled by the medulla?

Breathing, heart rate, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing.

What are cranial nerves?

Nerves that carry signals between the brain and the head or neck.

How does the medulla use cranial nerves?

To control sensation, head movements, and parasympathetic functions.

Which cranial nerves control eye movements?

Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI.

Which cranial nerves control taste and tongue/throat movements?

Cranial nerves VII, IX, and XII.

What is the pons?

A hindbrain structure ventral to the medulla; its name means “bridge.”

What is the function of the pons?

Axons cross between hemispheres so each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

What is the cerebellum?

A hindbrain structure with deep folds that contributes to movement and balance.

Besides movement, what does the cerebellum help regulate?

Shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli.

What is the midbrain?

A portion of the brainstem that includes the tectum, tegmentum, and substantia nigra.

What is the tectum?

The roof of the midbrain.

What do the superior and inferior colliculi do?

Process visual (superior) and auditory (inferior) information.

What is the tegmentum?

A part of the midbrain containing cranial nerve nuclei and the reticular formation.

What is the substantia nigra?

A midbrain structure involved in dopamine production and readiness for movement.

What is the forebrain?

The most anterior and prominent part of the brain, containing two cerebral hemispheres.

What does the forebrain consist of?

The outer cerebral cortex and various subcortical regions.

What is the cerebral cortex?

The outer layer of the forebrain responsible for higher brain functions.

How does each hemisphere of the cortex function?

Each hemisphere receives sensory input and controls motor output for the opposite side of the body.

What is the limbic system?

A group of forebrain structures involved in emotion and motivation.

What are the main parts of the limbic system?

Olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

Which behaviors are associated with the limbic system?

Eating, drinking, sexual behavior, aggression, and anxiety.

What is the thalamus?

A relay station for sensory information to the cortex.

What is the hypothalamus?

A structure that regulates hormone release and motivated behaviors.

What is the diencephalon?

The combined structure of the thalamus and hypothalamus.

What is the pituitary gland?

A hormone-producing gland controlled by the hypothalamus.

What is the basal ganglia?

A group of subcortical nuclei involved in motor control, emotions, and cognition.

What are the main components of the basal ganglia?

The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.

Which part of the mammalian brain is most prominent and anterior?

The forebrain with its two cerebral hemispheres.

What are the two main components of the forebrain?

The outer cortex and subcortical regions.

What is another name for the outer portion of the forebrain?

The cerebral cortex.

How does each forebrain hemisphere control the body?

Each hemisphere receives sensory input and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side.

What border-forming group of structures is involved in motivation and emotion?

The limbic system.

Name five key parts of the limbic system.

Olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

Which basic behaviors are linked to limbic system activity?

Eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety, and aggression.

Which brain region acts as a relay station for sensory input?

The thalamus.

Which small area at the base of the brain regulates motivated behaviors via the pituitary gland?

The hypothalamus.

What does the term diencephalon refer to?

The thalamus and hypothalamus together.

Where is the hormone-producing pituitary gland located?

At the base of the hypothalamus.

Which subcortical structures are vital for motor planning and other functions?

The basal ganglia.

Which structures form the basal ganglia?

Caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.

What is the basal forebrain?

A ventral forebrain region involved in arousal and attention.

What is the nucleus basalis?

A structure in the basal forebrain that releases acetylcholine to the cortex.

What is the main role of the nucleus basalis?

Important for wakefulness, arousal, and attention.

What is the hippocampus?

A large structure critical for storing new memories.

What are ventricles in the brain?

Four fluid-filled cavities containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

A clear fluid that cushions the brain and spinal cord and provides nutrients.

What are meninges?

Membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord and contain pain receptors.

What causes migraines related to the meninges?

Swollen blood vessels within the meninges.

What is the cerebral cortex?

The most prominent part of the mammalian brain, composed of layers of cells covering the hemispheres.

How are the two halves of the cortex connected?

By the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure.

What is unique about the human cerebral cortex?

It is more highly developed than that of other species.

How is the cortex organized structurally?

Into six layers (laminae) and vertical columns.

What is the main function of the occipital lobe?

Visual processing.

What is another name for the primary visual cortex?

The striate cortex.

What can damage to the occipital lobe cause?

Cortical blindness.

For what is the parietal lobe responsible?

Touch sensations, spatial processing, and integrating muscle/joint information.

Which structure lies in the parietal lobe?

The postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory cortex).

What additional function does the parietal lobe serve?

Processing numerical and spatial information, such as finger counting.

Where is the temporal lobe located?

On the side of each hemisphere near the temples.

What is the temporal lobe’s main function?

Auditory processing and understanding spoken language.

Besides hearing, what else is processed in the temporal lobe?

Visual movement and emotional or motivational behaviors.

What are the main regions in the frontal lobe?

The prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus.

What is the precentral gyrus?

The primary motor cortex responsible for fine motor movements.

What is the prefrontal cortex?

An integration center for sensory and higher-level cognitive information.

Which functions are associated with the prefrontal cortex?

Abstract thinking, planning, decision-making, and working memory.

What is a delayed-response task?

A task requiring response after a delay, used to test prefrontal function.

What is a prefrontal lobotomy?

A surgical disconnection of the prefrontal cortex used historically to treat mental illness.

What were typical effects of prefrontal lobotomy?

Apathy, poor planning, memory problems, and emotional flatness.

What is the binding problem?

How the brain combines signals from different sensory areas into a unified perception.

How might the brain solve the binding problem?

By synchronizing activity across areas when two sensations occur simultaneously at the same place.

What is an example illustrating the binding problem?

A ventriloquist trick where vision influences perceived sound location.

What are the main categories of brain research methods?

Effects of brain damage, brain stimulation, recording brain activity, and correlating anatomy with behavior.

What is ablation?

Surgical removal of a brain area for research.

What is a lesion in neuroscience research?

Deliberate brain damage created for experimental purposes.

What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A non-invasive method that temporarily inactivates brain areas using magnetic fields.

What is optogenetics?

A technique that uses light to activate or silence genetically modified neurons.

What is EEG (electroencephalography)?

A method that records the brain’s electrical activity via scalp electrodes.