Unit 5 Voting and Elections: How Americans Choose Leaders (and Who Gets Heard)

Voting rights

Legal guarantees that eligible citizens can participate in elections without unjust barriers or discrimination.

15th Amendment (1870)

Constitutional amendment prohibiting denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

19th Amendment (1920)

Constitutional amendment prohibiting denial of the right to vote on the basis of sex (women’s suffrage).

24th Amendment (1964)

Constitutional amendment prohibiting poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment (1971)

Constitutional amendment setting the voting age at 18.

Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965

Landmark federal law enforcing the 15th Amendment by prohibiting racial discrimination in voting; historically included preclearance for certain jurisdictions.

Preclearance

Requirement (under the VRA’s former coverage regime) that certain jurisdictions obtain federal approval before changing voting laws or procedures.

National Voter Registration Act (NVRA) of 1993

Federal law (“Motor Voter”) that expanded voter registration opportunities (e.g., at motor-vehicle agencies and by mail) to lower administrative barriers.

Help America Vote Act (HAVA) of 2002

Federal law encouraging updated voting systems and setting certain standards after controversies over ballot design and vote counting in the 2000 election.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

Supreme Court case that invalidated the VRA’s coverage formula for preclearance, reducing the reach of preclearance without striking down the entire VRA.

Model of voting behavior

A simplified explanation of what primarily drives voters’ decisions (used to predict how conditions may shift election outcomes).

Party identification

A voter’s long-term psychological attachment to a political party that acts as a shortcut (heuristic) shaping perceptions and vote choice.

Heuristic (in voting)

A mental shortcut (such as a party label) that helps voters make decisions with limited information.

Rational-choice voting

Model arguing that individuals vote based on perceived self-interest by weighing costs and benefits and choosing the option that maximizes personal benefit.

Retrospective voting

Voting based on evaluation of past performance of the incumbent party/candidates; voters reward success and punish failure (e.g., economy, crises).

Prospective voting

Voting based on which candidate is expected to produce the best future outcomes, using platforms, promises, and anticipated policy effects.

Sociological (group-based) voting

Voting influenced by group identities and social context (e.g., race/ethnicity, religion, region, union membership) and related networks/norms.

Valence issues

Broad issues most voters agree are important (e.g., public safety, economic growth), though they may disagree on solutions; can make competence/character salient.

Voter turnout

The share of eligible voters who cast ballots in an election; affects whose preferences are represented.

Same-day registration

A policy allowing eligible voters to register and vote on the same day, reducing planning and administrative barriers that can depress turnout.

Political efficacy

Belief that one’s participation matters; includes internal efficacy (understanding politics) and external efficacy (government responsiveness).

Mobilization

Efforts by parties, candidates, or groups to get people to vote (e.g., door-knocking, calls/texts, registration drives), often focused on likely supporters.

Incumbency advantage

Benefits enjoyed by current officeholders running for reelection, such as name recognition, constituent services, fundraising networks, and media visibility.

Electoral College

System in which states allocate electoral votes to choose the president; in most states, the statewide popular-vote winner receives all electoral votes, shaping strategy toward swing states.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Supreme Court case holding that the government cannot restrict independent political expenditures by corporations and unions, contributing to increased outside spending.