Criminology - Unit 2: Criminological Theories

Norms

The normal way of behaving in society. All laws are norms (such as not killing someone) but not all norms are laws (such as coming to college with your homework). Someone who breaks a norm is considered deviant.

Deviance

Deviance is any behaviour that differs from normal. In other words, it is behaviour that is unusual, uncommon or out of the ordinary in some way. It could be unusual in one of the three different ways:

- Behaviour that is unusual and good, such as heroically risking one's own life to save someone else

- Behaviour that is unusual and eccentric or bizarre, such as talking to the trees in the park, or hoarding huge quantities of old newspapers

- Behaviour that is unusual and bad or disapproved of, such as physically attacking someone for no reason.

The final definition is the most relevant to criminologists. This type of deviance involves breaking a rule or norm of some kind.

This rule-breaking leads to a critical, hostile or disapproving reaction from others.

Values

Specific cultural goals. Norms follow these values. A norm prescribes the actual behaviour and a value justifies that behaviour. Values are the reason why some actions are approved of more than others.

Norms and Values Example

Going to work.

Value = earn money to provide for family.

Norm = going to work.

Criminal norm = nefarious acts such as theft or fraud.

Sanctions

Punishments against someone who breaks laws/norms and they depend on the severity of the act.

Informal Sanctions

When people are punished for not following social norms in an informal setting. An example is a parent grounding their child.

Formal Sanctions

When social norms are being enforced at a legal level (breaking the law.) An example is imprisonment after committing a crime.

Examples of formal negative sanctions

- recieveing a prison sentence

- being ordered to pay a fine

- community service

Examples of informal negative sanctions

- a friend telling you off for speeding

- parents grounding a teenager for smoking underage

Social Construction

A view that things such as crime have no 'objective reality' and are instead constructed by society. What constitutes a crime tends to alter according to time, culture and circumstances. Norms are the products of social construction. Behaviour can vary in being normal or abnormal depending on the situation, time and place. Therefore, both crime and deviance is relative.

How laws change from culture to culture

Different cultures have different expectations of appropriate behaviour. What is a crime in one culture is not in another. Particular difficulties can arise when a person who has their origins in cultural background live in a different culture, but prefer to retain their own cultural ideas of what is right or wrong

Examples of different laws between cultures

- Female Genital Mutilation

- Bigamy

- Euthanasia

- Smacking children

- Drugs such as alcohol or cannabis

- Homosexuality

- Same-sex marriage

- Abortion

Culturally different laws which are legal in the UK

- Smacking children

- Homosexuality

- Same-sex marriage

- Abortion

Culturally different laws which are illegal in the UK

- Female Genital Mutilation

- Bigamy

- Euthanasia

- Drugs such as cannabis

How laws change over time

The definition of crime changes to reflect society's changing norms and values. We can gain insight into the socially constructed nature of crime by looking at how the treatment of certain behaviours varies over time. The 1960s in Britain are often refered to as the 'permissive age'. This was intended to convey what was perceived to be the general loosening of moral codes in the period. It was also a time when a series of liberalising laws were passed.

Examples of criminalisation in the UK

- It was illegal to take heroin up until the first world war (around 1920). After this the use was restricted but it could still be prescribed by a doctor until the 1960's.

- It used to be legal to smoke in UK pubs and clubs. However, the law was changed in 2007.

- Incest was not regarded as a crime until 1908.

Examples of decriminalisation in the UK

- The abortion act 1967 made it possible for women to have a pregnancy terminated. Prior to 1967 abortion was illegal.

- Attempted suicide was regarded as a criminal offence until 1961.

- UNtil 1967 any male homosexual behaviour was considered to be a criminal act punishable by imprisonment. However, the age of consent was set at 21 years. The age of consent was lowered to 18 in 1979. In 2000, this was lowered to 16 years, in line with the heterosexual age of consent.

- In the USA the National prohibition act was passed in 1919 and stayed in place until 1933. This banned the production and sale of alcohol.

How laws are applied differently according to circumstances in which actions occur

Place - The location or situation of the offence

Specific circumstances: crime should involve conscious rule-breaking.

Age: if a person is below the age of criminal responsibility an act would not be considered a crime.

Mental Health: Those suffering from some forms of mental illness are considered incapable of conscious intention.

Age

If a person is below the age of criminal responsibility (10 years in England) then a law which is broken by that person cannot be considered to be a crime. E.G. if a 3-year-old child walks out of a shop without paying for some sweets then this is not a crime. This is because they are not at a level where they can understand the difference between right and wrong.

Mental Health

Individuals are deemed to have committed a criminal act only if they can be shown to have had the intention of doing so. Those suffering from forms of psychiatric (mental) illness are considered incapable of this aspect of criminal behaviour. They will usually still be convicted of the crime, but will often spend time in a psychiatric institute rather than a prison.

Cesaro Lombroso (1876)

An Italian psychiatrist and military doctor who made many contribution to the criminology field and believed that the criminal is a separate sub-species which is between modern and primitive humans. He shifted the study of criminal behaviour from a moral basis to a scientific one and is regarded as the 'father of criminology'.

Lombroso's Theory

Lombroso believed that criminals are born and this scan be seen in the physical shape of the face and head. The concept is that criminality is heritable and Lombroso claimed that criminals were genetic throwbacks. They are a primitive subspecies somewhere between modern and primitive humans and they are biologically different from non-criminal and could not adapt to modern morality.

Physiological Markers (Lombroso)

The theory states that criminal types are distinguishable from the general population because they look different. Lombroso argued that the criminal subtype could be identified by particular physiological markers named atavistic characters.

Atavistic Characteristics (Lombroso)

Physiological markers which Lombroso argued were signs of criminality.

- The principal markers of criminality were a strong jaw and heavy brow

- High Cheekbones

- Facial asymmetry

- Large ears

- Extra nipples/toes/fingers

- An insensitivity to pain

Crime-specific atavistic characteristics (Lombroso)

Murderers = bloodshot eyes, long ears, curly hair

Sex offenders = thick lips, glinting eyes, protruding ears

Fraudsters = thin lips

Cause and effect (Lombroso)

His research was carried out amongst Italian prisons. Essentially he was studying the very poor people whose physical development had been affected by poverty and poor nutrition. Therefore, the physical characteristics that he identifies as being due to criminality also align with signs of malnutrition.

Contradictory Evidence (Lombroso)

He didnt use any non-criminal control groups to compare the groups and establish wheteher the features identified were confined to the criminal population. When the study was repeated the findings were not replicated. Goring (1913) compared the physical measurements of 3000 English convicts and 3000 non-convicts. There was nothing found to support the idea that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics.

Reductionism (Lombroso)

Lombroso's theory is a reductionist because it only considers the biological factors of facial structure despite research finding that environmental factors have links to levels of criminality. In his later work, Lombroso took a less extreme stance where he acknowledged that criminals could be made due to a range of environmental facts and concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for atavistic characteristics.

Reductionism definition

Research found that the environment impacts criminal behaviour. Such as learning criminal behaviour from being exposed to criminal behaviour. An explanation is the diathesis-stress model which claims that all behaviour is a product of genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and an environmental trigger (Stress). Reductionism is when theories only consider one type of factor and not multiple types of factors. E.G. Lombroso only focuses on biological factors.

Key Words - Evaluation

Reductionist = only considers one possibility for the explanation

Holistic = considers a number of factors as the explanation

Deterministic = says everyone with this or born like this will become a criminal

Environmental factors = family background, housing, poverty, etc

Sample bias = if the studies are just of convicted criminals they're not representative.

Gender bias = most research just focuses on biological men therefore it cannot necessarily explain female criminality

Crime is a social construct = if crime varies over time/place etc, then how can we look for a universal explanation

Diathesis-stress model = a combination of biological and environmental factors

William Sheldon (1949) - "The Varieties of Delinquent Youth"

Sheldon collected over 4000 photos of male students and Sheldon proposed three basic body builds (somatotypes). Ectomorph, Endomorph, Mesomorph. Sheldon believed body types were linked to personality. Pure somatotypes are rare, most people are a mixture of different types.

Ectomorph

Thin, introverted and restrained.

Endomorph

Fat, sociable and relaxed

Mesomorph

Muscular, aggressive and adventurous. Sheldon claimed that mesomorphs are more prone to criminal activities than the other two somatotypes and there was a relationship between how mesomorphic someone was and their level of criminality.

Methods (Sheldon)

He assessed the somatotypes of samples of 200 college students and 200 delinquents from photographs and rated each photo for mesomorphy from 1(low) to 7(high). The results were that the students average were 3.8 and the delinquents average were 4.6. This meant that the results supported Sheldons theory.

Supporting evidence (Sheldon)

Hart et al (1982) conducted a study and found that the most seriously delinquent people had a rating of 5, supporting Sheldon's theory. A number of other studies have supported the theory. There are multiple possibilities suggested as to why. One of these is that mesomorphic builds reflect high testosterone levels, which may result in an increase risk of criminal behaviour.

Cause and Effect (Sheldon)

Because of the stereotypes people hold about mesomorphs they may be drawn into delinquent activities by their peer groups. Alternately, the judicial system may treat them more harshly, increasing the likelihood that mesomorphs will be officially labelled as criminal.

Reductionism (Sheldon)

A weakness of Sheldon's theory is that it is reductionist because it only looks at body shape - a biological factor - whilst research has shown there are environmental factors which influence crime.

Chromosomes

Tightly coiled, condensed DNA molecules which contain up to thousands of genes. There are 46 chromosomes in two pairs. Sex is determined by the pattern of chromosomes. (XX AND XY).

Genes

Sections of DNA that code for a particular characteristic.

XX

Chromosomes of a female

XY

Chromosomes of a male

XYY theory

A theory that since males are considered more aggressive than females it might be that men who have XYY chromosomes are more aggressive than other men and hence are more likely to commit violence crimes.

Correlating evidence (XYY - Jacobs et al 1965)

Studies have indicated that XYY leads to: high testosterone levels, powerful body builds (such as very tall), potential for acne and scars, heightened aggression, tendency for violent crime, and increased risk of learning disability. Jacobs et al (1965) found that 3% of men in prison suffer from the extra Y chromosome compared to the 0.1% in the general population. Some criminals with XYY are John Wayne Gacy and Arthur Shawcross.

Contradicting evidence (XYY - Jacobs et al 1965)

Some evidence has found that testosterone and aggression levels amongst XYY men are no different from XY men. However. XYY are at an increased risk of developmental delay and learning difficulties, it has been found that there is a small association between learning difficulties. IQ scores amongst convicted offenders are marginally lower than the general population. It might be the case that the hearing number of XYY men in the offender population is a consequence of the learning difficulties associated with the condition. Witkins et al investigated this and found that XYYs were often bad at being criminals. Their lower IQ made them more likely to get caught and convicted for their crimes hence the higher density of XYYs in the prison population found by Jacobs et al.

Reductionism (XYY)

A weakness of the XYY theory is that it is reductionist as it states that it is only genetics (biological) that influence criminality. However, research has found that the environment also impacts criminal behaviour, for example an individual may learn criminal behaviour after being exposed to crime in their surroundings. A better explanation would be the diathesis-stress model which claims that all behaviour is the product of both a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and an environmental trigger (stress).

Adoption Studies

Compare the child's behaviour with their adopted parents and their biological parents. If they are similar to the adopted parents in a particular behaviour it suggests the role of environment. Whereas if they're similar to the biological parents it is the role of genetics.

Supporting Evidence (Adoption Studies)

Mednick et al (1987) analysed all the court convictions between 1927 and 1947 in Denmark and found over 14,000 adoptees. They then investigated both the criminal convictions of each persons biological parents and adopted parents. They prove the diathesis-stress model by proving having both criminal biological and criminal adoptive parents mean that their child has the highest chance of having a criminal record. The findings show there was a strong relationship between having a biological parent convicted of a crime and a son committing a crime.

Twin Studies

Compare monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins to see if genetics have any impact on criminal behaviours or if they are down to the environment either type of twins share. This is because monozygotic twins share 100% of their DNA whilst dizygotic twins only share 50% of their DNA. Both types of twins share 100% of the environment.

Monozygotic (MZ) (Twin Studies)

Identical twins, they share the same environment and have identical genes, sharing 100% of their DNA. They occur when a single egg is fertilised by single sperm which then splits into two. They share a sack in the womb.

Dizygotic (DZ) (Twin Studies)

Non-identical, fraternal twins who share the same environment but only 50% of the same genetics/DNA. They occur when separate eggs are fertilized by separate sperm. In the womb they have their own sacks.

Concordance Rates (Twin Studies)

The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic. The higher the number the more similar the twins pairs are to each other, therefore the more likely a genetic cause. If a behaviour is genetic monozygotic twins will have the highest concordance rate.

Supporting evidence (Twin Studies)

Christiansen (1977) gathered extensive data on over 3,500 twin pairs in relation to criminality. The traits of one twin were compared with the traits of the other. The concordance rate was 35% in identical male twins and 13% in non-identical male twins. The rate among female twins were significantly lower. 21% in identical twins and 8% in non-identical twins. The results indicate that because the concordance rate in identical twins is higher, there are genetic factors that contribute to criminal behaviour. Although, crime may be less heritable in females.

Reductionism (Adoption Studies)

The adoption studies are not reductionist because it considers the diathesis-stress model and recognises that both genetic and environmental factors can contribute towards criminality. This shows that aggression cannot be purely genetic, as there is an interaction between genes and the environment.

Reductionism (Twin Studies)

The twin studies are not reductionist because it recognises that the environment has an impact as well as the DNA shared in the twins.

The Mobley Defence

A defence which states that someone is innocent because of a genetic predisposition. This isn't a legal defence in court but may be considered when the judge decided on a prison sentence length.

Determinism definition

The idea that if someone is born with a certain gene, characteristic etc they are going to become a criminal.

Bayout (2007)

Bayout admitted to stabbing and killing a man in 2007 and received a sentence of 9years and 2months. However, an appeal court judge in Italy, cut Bayout's sentence by a year after finding out he has gene variants linked to aggression.

Social Sensitivity

- We must question whether criminals should have their sentences cut for possessing such genes or should they be locked away forever if we cant correct their faulty biology? Therefore, this research is socially sensitive and could lead to us questioning should unborn children be tested for aggression? If they are found to have the criminal gene should the parents opt not to have the child?

- These types of ethical questions illustrate the controversy that behavioural genetics brings to the world.

What does the frontal lobe control?

- Motor control (premotor cortex)

- Problem solving (prefrontal area)

- Speech production (Broca's area)

What does the Parietal Lobe control?

- Touch perception (somatosensory cortex)

- Body orientation

- Sensory discrimination

What does the Occipital Lobe control?

- Sight (Visual cortex)

- Visual reception

- Visual interpretation

What does the temporal lobe control?

- Auditory processing (hearing)

- Language comprehension (Wernicke's area)

- Memory/Information retrieval

What does the cerebellum control?

Balance and coordination

What does the brainstem control?

Involuntary responses

Phineas Gage (Brain Injuries)

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who had an accident in which an iron tamping rod passed through his skull and brain, from which he survived and was conscious immediately afterwards. Other than scarring, loss of vision and epilepsy, he physically recovered in the following months. He had no memory loss. His personality changed so much that his friends and family said he became a different person. He changed from a polite, hard-working and well-respected man to irritable, prone to profanity and violent. He lost his job and no longer made socially acceptable decisions, so was unable to maintain relationships and jobs later in life. Phineas Gage damaged part of his frontal cortex. This area of the brain is associated with executive decision making, behavioural control and higher thinking processes. Many studies into psychopathy and violent criminal behaviour have implicated dysfunction of prefrontal cortex. Individuals with damaged prefrontal cortex have been found to have increased aggression.

What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?

- Executive decision making

- Behavioural control

- Higher thinking processes

Charles Whitman (Brain Injuries)

He was convinced something was wrong with him and stated this in his diary. He expressed his wishes for an autopsy after his death to see if anything was physically wrong with him. He suffered from 'tremendous headaches' and consumed two large bottles of Excredin in three months. He states that thought heavily and decided to kill his wife Kathy after picking her up from work. He says he loves her dearly, he couldn't ask for a better wife and he couldn't find a rational reason for doing it. He said that similar reasons provoked him to kill his mother.

The autopsy of Charles Whitman revealed a brain tumour pressing on his amygdala, which the surgeon at the time concluded has no influence on his behaviour. The amygdala has since been linked to regulating emotions and aggression. Other psychologists have suggested that Whitman's extremely strict father may have influenced the murders.

What is the amygdala (aka limbic system) responsible for?

Regulation of emotions, fear and aggression.

Adrian Raine (1997) (Brain Injuries)

He was at the Department of Criminology of the School of Arts and Sciences and in the Department of Psychiatry of the School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. He studied the brains of serial killers on death row in USA who were diagnosed 'not guilty by reason of insanity'. He found 3 specific differences in the brains of murderers:

- Less activity in the frontal lobe, especially the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with impaired rational thinking, decision-making and self-restraint.

- Less activity in the parietal lobe, which is associated with abstract thinking such as "morality" or "justice".

- An imbalance of activity in the limbic system (amygdala): associated with emotional regulation and aggression.

MAOA Gene - 'Warrior Gene' (Brain Injuries)

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) is an enzyme that breaks down important neurotransmitters in the brain, including dopamine and serotonin. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour. One variant of the gene is associated with high levels of MAOA (MAOA-H) and another variant is associated with low levels (MAOA-L). Several studies have found a correlation between the low-activity form of the MAOA gene and aggression

Biological Policies

Crime control policies refer to the laws, regulations and other government actions or strategies that are designed to reduce criminal acts. One of the main aims in the Criminal Justice Act 2003 is 'public protection'. Therefore, meaning that is a key responsibility of the government and policy makers to help control crime rates. There are 4 biological policies:

- Eugenic policies

- Surgical castration

- Death penalty

- Biochemical processes.

Eugenic Policies - Francis Galton

In Nazi Germany, they killed over 200,000 disabled people and forcibly sterilised over twice that number of disabled people. Lebensborn birth houses were used in Nazi Germany to raise the birth rate of "Aryan" children from the extramarital relations of "racially pure and healthy" parents. Britain supported the idea of eugenics and called for government policies to improve the biological quality of the human race through 'selective parenthood'. They linked physical and learning disabilities to a range of social problems including crime, vagrancy, alcoholism, prostitution, and unemployment. Eugenic sterilisation reached astounding proportions worldwide in the first half of the 20th century. In the United Sates over sixty thousand eugenic sterilisations were performed between 1907 and 1963. Approx. twenty thousand were female inmates in California. Similar numbers have been estimated for Sweden.

Alan Turing

He pleaded guilty in 1952 to a charge of gross indecency for engaging in homosexual acts and accepted chemical castration as a term of his probation, thus avoiding imprisonment. However, this was a new treatment and the side effects led to Turing committing suicide.

Surgical Sterilisation (Biological Policies)

A biological method derived from the concept of biological 'born criminal' - Lombroso perspective. To attempt to solve the problem of crime in society by eliminating the reproductive opportunities for criminals. It happened in California, female prisoners were lied to about what they were having surgery for and some of them still don't know they will be unable to have kids in their lives.

Death Penalty / Capital Punishments (Biological Policies)

Last time it was performed was 1964, suspended in 1965 but only banned under all circumstances in 1998 (previously technically allowed for high treason, piracy with violence, and espionage.) It is legal in China, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and 27/50 of American States.

Death Penalty Pros

- The public support the death penality.

- Could reduce crime by acting as a deterrent when execution is a certainty, like in Singapore. The USA sees people waiting a long time on death row due to the number of appeals and so is seen as less of a deterrent. Furthermore, it works better as a deterrent the shorter the time between conviction and execution, like in Singapore.

- Gives a sense of retribution to the families of victims and they feel they have been provided with justice.

- No risk of reoffending.

- Could prove less expensive than keeping someone imprisoned their entire life.

Death Penalty Cons

- Risk of wrongful execution.

- Not a deterrent as people still commit crime.

- The death penalty is an extremely expensive form of punishment/sanctions.

- Suggests there is no role for rehabilitation.

- Bias towards class and race. In the USA, a disproportional number of people on death row are black or mixed race.

- Doesn't always work the first time -> where does it develop from justice to torture.

Protected Characteristics

Age

Disability

Sex

Gender reassignment

Race

Religion or Belief

Sexual orientation

Marriage and Civil partnership

Pregnancy and Maternity

British Values

Democracy

Tolerance of different faiths and beliefs

Mutual Respect

Individual liberty

Rule of law

Biochemical Processes

Several biochemical processes and factors have been linked with criminality, such as the effects of the male sex hormone testosterone, substance abuse and deficiencies in diet. This has led to policies, mostly in the form of individualised treatment programmes for offenders. An example of a biochemical process for male sex offenders, Stilbesterol has been used to 'chemically castrate' criminals. These treatment programmes reduce offending through the use of drugs or diet.

- Alcohol can trigger violent behaviour. The drug Antabuse has been used for this criminal behaviour.

- Heroin addiction leads to criminal behaviour to pay for the drug. Methadone has been used for this criminal behaviour.

The Police Code (Moral Codes)

Lays down nine policing principles:

- Accountability

- Integrity

- Openness

- Fairness

- Leadership

- Respect

- Honesty

- Objectivity

- Selflessness

For instance, the principles of fairness requires officers to oppose discrimination and make decisions without prejudice. Some police forces now require officers to sign the Code to show their commitment to its principles.

Moral Codes

Used to describe a set of basic rules values and principles held by an individual, group, organisation or society as a whole.

A moral code or code of ethics may be written down. For example, the Police Code of Ethics is a written guide to the core principles and standards that officers are expected to uphold in their work.

Marxism

Created by the communist Karl Marx.

Marxists state we live in a capitalist society which is full of conflict between the classes. This conflict affects every bit of our lives, including crime. Marxism is a structural theory - it sees the structures of society as determining how people behave. All of societies structures help to maintain class inequalities. E.g. the family, education, religion, and the government. Crime also helps to maintain class inequality. Marxism's theory of crime has three main elements:

1) Crimogenic Capitalism

2) The State and Law Making

3) Ideological Functions of Crime and Law.

Capitalism

"an economic system that is based on the private ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange"

Marxists see this capitalist society as being based on an unequal conflict between two social classes. The Ruling Class and The Working Class. Because of this, Marxism is classified as a conflict approach. For Marxists, capitalism societies encourage crime and therefore this explains why it still exists. Marxists believe that the bourgeoisie have the power to ensure that certain activities are seen as okay, and others are seen as wrong even if they have similar consequences.

The Ruling Class (Bourgeoisie)

The people who own the means of production.

The Working Class (The proletariat)

The people/workers exploited by the ruling class.

Crimogenic Capitalism (Marxism)

The idea that capitalism causes crime.

For Marxists, crime is inevitable in capitalism, because capitalism is crimogenic. This means that the structure of capitalist society generates crime. Capitalism is based on the exploitation of the working class. It uses them as a means to an end (using them for profit). Poverty may mean that crime is the only way the working class can survive and get the consumer goods which are encouraged by capitalist advertising (e.g. theft). Alienation and lack of control over their lives may lead to frustration and aggression, resulting in crimes such as vandalism and violence. Therefore, the working class commit crimes because of poverty, desire for goods, alienation and a lack of control. However, crime is not confined to the working class. Capitalism is a competitive, 'dog eat dog' system which encourages greed, self-interest and emphasises the importance of winning. Therefore, even the ruling class feel the pressure to commit crime and get ahead. This means they are likely to commit corporate crimes such as tax evasion.

The State and Law Making (Marxism)

The idea that law making and enforcement is biased. Marxists see law making and law enforcement as only serving the interests of the dominant capitalist class. This is because most law is based on protecting private property so that the essence of capitalism is protected. This therefore protects the ruling class who are those that own private property. The ruling class also have the power to prevent new laws that would threaten their interests. E.g. laws that regulate business and threaten profitability.

Ideological Functions of Crime and Law (Marxism)

The function of crime and law is to serve the rich. The law and the criminal justice system is a tool used by the ruling class to serve their interests and maintain a position of power. So laws don't just punish but perform functions to keep capitalism stable. Laws which appear to protect the interests of workers can actually be reinterpreted as a way to keep the working class loyal to the capitalist system. e.g. health and safety laws protecting workers can be seen in this light. So workers feel that they are being cared for. Plus they have the additional benefit to the ruling class of helping to provide a fit and healthy workforce.

Ruling Class Crimes (Marxism)

The crimes of the powerful (corporate crime) are rarely prosecuted (if discovered at all). E.g. failing to pay business taxes and breaking trading laws.

Working Class Crimes (Marxism)

Those at the bottom of the class system who are caught breaking the law are regularly prosecuted. E.g. for theft.

Ruling and Working Class Crimes (Marxism)

Despite being prosecuted more, in monetary terms working class crimes are a drop in the ocean compared to the vast sums involved in the criminal activities of those at the top. E.g. it is estimated that in the USA street crime costs $4 billion per year but the costs of corporate crime is more than twenty times greater. Therefore, the working class are punished harshly while the crimes of the powerful go unnoticed. This maintains the class system.

Informing Policy Development (Marxism)

Marxism has not had any significant impact on modern crime policy. But the theory would argue that criminals should be punished. The function of punishment is to maintain the existing social order. 18th century punishments such as hanging and transporation to the colonies for crimes such as theft and poaching were part of a 'rule of terror' bu the Bourgeoisie over the poor. Under capitalism, custodial sentences (imprisonment) becomes the dominant form of punishment. Prisons could be argued to have an ideological function e.g. the US prison system soaks up about 30-40% of the unemployed, thereby making capitalism look more successful.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism):

Statistics show that the working classes commit more crime. Explain how Marxism helps us to understand these statistics.

The Marxist theory provides a useful explanation of the relationship between crime and capitalist society. It shows the link between law making, enforcement and the interests of the capitalist class. By doing it is able to explain why statistics show that the working classes commit more crime. E.g. for financial gain, or maybe they don't commit more crime its just they are caught more often!

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism):

Marxism suggests that the working class WILL commit crime, is this always true? Use evaluation terminology here.

A weakness of the Marxist theory of crime is that it is very deterministic. This is because it over-predicts crime in the working class, it claims that the working class will commit crime. However, this does not allow for freewill, not all working class commit crime despite the pressures of poverty.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism):

From the Marxist perspective, crime is the fault of capitalism, how could this idea be used as an excuse for committing crime?

Because the theory is deterministic it is also socially sensitive, it could be used to excuse working class crime. From the Marxist perspective crime is the fault of capitalism. Therefore, the working class don't have any choice but to commit crime for financial gain or to release aggression. It could also be used to excuse ruling class crime as it argues that capitalism encourages the importance of winning and financial gain.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism):

The theory claims that capitalism causes crime so we should expect all capitalist societies to have high crime rates. BUT can you think of any capitalist societies which may have low crime rates?

A criticism is that as the theory claims that capitalism causes crime, we should expect all capitalist societies to have high crime rates. However, not all do. Switzerland and Japan are capitalist but have low crime rates. On the other hand, the theory would predict that communist societies can eradicate crime. However, in both China and Russia crime still exists. Although of course we could argue both are not true communist states.

Functionalism

Functionalism is a structural theory. It sees the structures of society as determining how people behave. Functionalists say society is based on a value consensus. Sharing the same culture produces social solidarity. Culture binds individual together, telling them what to strive for and how to behave.

Value Consensus

Members of a society all share a common culture.