SAT Writing Sentences and Fragments / Punctuation

what two things must every sentence contain?

a subject, a conjugated verb that corresponds to the subject (e.g. the tomato grows)

what is a sentence also called

an independent clause

what can be added to a sentence to make it longer?

prepositional phrases

what is a prepositional phrase?

a phrase that begins with a preposition--a time or location word (that comes before a noun) - e.g. the tomato grows around the world, where "around" is the preposition)

example of sentence that contains many prepositional phrases (identify the prepositional phrases): The tomato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world;

in, in, around

identify the prepositional phrase: The tomatoes in the greenhouse grow in many varieties and colors

in the greenhouse

identify the prepositional phrase: In the greenhouse, the tomatoes grow in many varieties and colors.

In the greenhouse,

can a prepositional phrase stand alone as a complete sentence?

no, they are fragments (e.g. "In the greenhouse" or "In many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world")

if a statement doesn't make sense out of context, is it still a sentence?

yes, meaning out of context does not correspond to definition of whether it is a sentence or not

what can two things can nouns be replaced by in sentences? (again, an example of how the meaning out of context doesn't correlate with whether it is a sentence or not)

pronouns (e.g. The tomato grows -> "It grows" or "They grow")

group pronouns (e.g. some, several, few, many: Many (of them) are grown in greenhouses around the world)

dependent clause (give 2 key examples of how to identify)

pronoun is followed by "of which" or "of whom" -- cannot stand alone as a full sentence (e.g. many of which are grown in greenhouses around the world / most of whom believe that the tomato is a vegetable)

first type of adverb

adjective + --ly (e.g. slow -> slowly, current -> currently, important -> importantly)

second type of adverb

adverb of time (tells when or how often something occurs - e.g. today, yesterday), or transitions that indicate relationships between ideas (e.g. nevertheless, next)

what is the effect of adding adverbs to sentences?

adverbs have no grammatical effect whatsoever on a sentence. a sentence to which an adverb is added will continue to be a sentence, regardless of where the adverb is placed

non-essential information

when removed, the sentence still makes grammatical sense (e.g. "The tomato, which is one of the most popular salad ingredients, grows in many shapes and varieties around the world." -> "The tomato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world."

location of non-essential information

inserted between the subject and the verb as a phrase or clause

punctuation with non-essential information

surrounded by commas (symmetric punctuation, one before and one after)

*appositive

non-essential clause that begins with a noun (e.g. "The tomato, a popular salad ingredient, grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world." - where "a popular salad ingredient" is the appositive)

location of appositive

beginning, middle, or end of a sentence (e.g. "A popular salad ingredient, the tomato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world." or "In greenhouses around the world grow many shapes and varieties of the tomato, a popular salad ingredient.")

can a non-essential clause stand alone as a complete sentence? what are some important identification methods?

no, non-essential clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences.

shortcut: statement (not a question) beginning with a "w-word" (e.g. which, who/whose, where) is not a complete sentence

can a sentence stop right after a non-essential clause?

no - it will become a fragment, and thus should not have a period or semicolon placed after it (e.g. The tomato, which is one of the most popular salad ingredients)

what is one exception to the "w-word" rule?

(rare usage) when the "w-word" functions as a subject (e.g. Where the meeting would be located was a subject of intense debate)

what are the 2 kinds of participles that a verb has?

present participle, past participle

present participle

verb + --ing (e.g. talk -> talking, paint -> painting, throw -> throwing)

past participle

verb + --ed or --n (e.g. talk -> talked, paint -> painted, throw -> thrown)

*participial phrase

begins with a participle and can be either in the present or past tense (e.g. "Originating in South America, the tomato, one of the most popular salad ingredients, grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world.")

can participial phrases stand alone as sentences?

no (e.g. "Originating in South America" would be a fragment)

gerunds

identical in appearance to present participles (created by adding -ing to verbs)

but instead of acting as modifiers, they act as nouns and typically follow pronouns (e.g. "I was irritated by his whistling" where "whistling" is the gerund), or prepositions (e.g. "The gannet is a bird that catches fish by diving from heights of up to 100 feet" where "by diving" is the gerund)

is a clause that contains a subject and an --ing word automatically a sentence?

no, it is not a sentence but rather a fragment since a sentence should contain a subject and a conjugated verb (e.g. Tomatoes growing in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world -> Tomatoes grow in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world)

is be +ing the conjugated verb form of be?

no

conjugated form of "be": singular present

is (e.g. "Today the tomato being grown in greenhouses around the world." -> "Today the tomato is grown in greenhouses around the world.")

conjugated form of "be": singular past

was

conjugated form of "be": plural present

are

conjugated form of "be": plural past

were (e.g. "Originally, tomatoes being cultivated only in South America." -> Originally, tomatoes were cultivated only in South America)

what are the 2 main types of conjunctions?

coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions

coordinating conjunctions (state definition and examples)

join two independent clauses (FANBOYS - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

a single clause beginning with a coordinating conjunction is/is not a sentence?

is not a sentence (e.g. And today, tomatoes are cultivated in greenhouses around the world. -> Today, tomatoes are cultivated in greenhouses around the world)

subordinating conjunctions (state property of sentence)

join an independent clause and a dependent clause (e.g. Because tomatoes are colorful and full of flavor -> Because tomatoes are colorful and full of flavor, they are one of the most popular salad ingredients) - these sentences (the dependent clause part) begin with a subordinating conjunction

what is the function of a semicolon on the SAT?

same as a period, to separate two complete sentences

what are "strong" transitions and what are some examples? (conjunctive adverbs)

they can begin a sentence (e.g. however, therefore, thus, consequently, moreover, nevertheless)

The tomato is often treated as a vegetable. However, it is actually a fruit.

what do "strong transitions" must follow?

period or semicolon, never a comma

how do fanboys work to join two complete sentences?

comma + fanboys

if a fanboys conjunction is used without a comma to join two sentences, the result is ...

a run-on sentence (e.g. Tomatoes are used in many types of cooking and they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses.)

a fanboys conjunction should not be used after these two punctuations

period, semicolon

how do you determine whether this sentence "Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking, and are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses" or this sentence "Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking and are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses" is correct?

technical reason: subject is the same in both clauses and is not repeated in the second clause

method: comma+and = period, so replace the comma+and in the first sentence with a period to see that the statement after the period is not a sentence

to summarize, what 3 things are grammatically equivalent in separating 2 complete sentences?

semicolon = period = comma+fanboys

how do colons and dashes work in separating two complete sentences?

you can separate two independent clauses with a colon or a dash, but only when the second clause explains or describes a result of the first

**must be providing an explanation rather than just providing additional information

what is a comma splice, how can you identify it, and what can you do with it in the answer options?

when a comma alone is used to separate two independent clauses

often signaled by comma+pronoun (e.g. ...,he)

can eliminate answer option right away

colons can only come after this type of clause

independent clause

what two kinds of punctuation cannot be used to separate a sentence from a fragment?

period, semicolon

what 3 kinds of punctuation can be used to separate a sentence from a fragment?

comma, colon, dash

what is the difference between a sentence and a fragment?

sentence = independent clause

fragment = dependent clause

sentences that begin with these kinds of words are always dependent

subordinating conjunctions (e.g. after, although, as, because, before, despite, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, while)

which 3 subordinating conjunctions are strong? what must you do in this case if they are present in an independent clause+dependent clause case?

when independent clause comes first, the comma is usually unnecessary, except in the case of strong subordinating conjunctions like though, although, and even though (e.g. Incorrect: Frank became one of the most famous singers of the 20th century although he never learned to read music. Correct: Frank became one of the most famous singers of the 20th century, although he never learned to read music.)

what is another option to join the independent+dependent clause that is not punctuation related?

use an "-ing" word as an alternative to "and + verb"

version 1: The Mid-Autumn Festival dates back 3000 years to the Shang Dynasty, and celebrations usually take place on the 15th day of the 8th month.

version 2: The Mid-Autumn Festival dates back 3000 years to the Shang Dynasty, with celebrations usually taking place on the 15th day of the 8th month.

a clause beginning with this "w-word" is always dependent, this word can also be used for a certain purpose (to join...)

"which" can be used to join an independent+dependent clause (and must follow a comma)

what is a rule about the presence of subordinating/coordinating (FANBOYS) conjunctions in two consecutive clauses? why is this?

in any two consecutive clauses, only ONE conjunction can be used. otherwise, the sentence will lack a main clause (e.g. Incorrect: Although the Antarctica interior is home to some of the most pristine landscapes on earth, but its climate is too harsh to sustain animal life. -> correct version must remove either "although" or remove "but")

what two things can be after a colon (that makes its function different from a period, though both being used to separate two complete sentences)

either a sentence (explanation) or a fragment (list)

(shortcut) any answer that places a colon AFTER these two phrases is almost certainly incorrect (usage of colon is unnecessary)

"such as" or "including" (e.g. Photographer and filmmaker George Picker chronicled artists such as: folk singers, jazz musicians, and visual artists. Photographer and filmmaker George Picker chronicled artists including: folk singers, jazz musicians, and visual artists.)

do two commas always equal a non-essential clause?

no (e.g. During the middle ages, London was one of the largest and most important cities in Europe, and today it remains an important financial and cultural center)

method to figure out non-essential clause and punctuation

draw a line through section and test it

2 locations of non-essential clauses and their respective punctuations

in the middle (surrounded by commas), at the end (after a single comma)

ex. The Tower of London retained its original form until the reign of Richard the Lionheart at the end of the twelfth century, many scholars believe.

other punctuation of non-essential word/phrase at the end of a sentence (+reason why)

colon or dash (when an explanation or definition follows)

e.g. Since the eighteenth century, artisans have attempted to reproduce the sound of a Stradivarius violin. None of them have succeeded, however---the tonal quality remains unique and unmatched by any other instrument maker.

statement is used to explain what is meant by "none of them have succeeded"

the phrase must be set off by commas if this situation remains after removal of phrase

if a single, logical sentence remains

the transition must come after a period, semicolon, or colon if this situation remains after removal of transition

if there are two sentences and the transition is being used to start a new sentence/clause

if transition is used non-essentially at the end of a sentence, it has these 2 properties

1. it connects that sentence to the previous sentence/section of the passage

2. it must come after a comma and can be followed by a period, semicolon, or colon

two commas, two _____, and two ________ are all __________

two commas, two dashes, two parentheses are all grammatically interchangeable

what is the exception for the interchangability of two commas, two dashes, two parentheses

situations involving transitions (e.g. however, therefore, in fact), which must be surrounded by COMMAS when used non-essentially

clauses beginning with "....." are always essential to the meaning of a sentence and should not be set off by commas

this property makes any answer choice that contains ____ or _____ automatically incorrect

beginning with "that"

use of a comma before/after "that" is almost always incorrect

when a name or title appears in the middle of a sentence, there are generally 2 correct options

1. two commas (one before and one after the name/title)

2. no commas at all

a single comma _______ a name or title is always incorrect

before (occasionally a single comma may be required after the name or title)

commas around a name/title imply that it is _______

the only person or thing

no commas around a name/title imply that it is _______

one of many people or things

clauses beginning with "..." can either be ______ (state punctuation) or _________ (state punctuation)

are they grammatically acceptable, and do they have the same meanings?

"who"

either non-essential (two commas) or essential (no commas)

both versions are grammatically acceptable but have somewhat different meanings

how do you keep parallel structure within lists?

in any given list of three or more items, each item should appear in the same format

e.g. noun, noun, and noun / gerund, gerund, and gerund / verb, verb, and verb

if full lists appear in the answer choices for parallel structure questions, how can you simplify the question?

check the beginning of each item and see if they are parallel

Correct: [changes] in wind circulation patterns, [runoff] from sewage, and [accumulation] of [fertilizers]

Incorrect: [changing] wind circulation, [runoff] from sewage, and [accumulating] fertilizers

for questions testing parallel structure involving only two items joined by a conjunction (and, or, but), what must you consider?

consider the entire sentence because the answer is likely to depend on information outside the blank

how do you identify the subject in a sentence? (what questions should you ask yourself)

Who or what is this sentence about?

what things are usually subjects in a sentence?

1. noun (person, place, animal, or thing) or a pronoun (e.g., I, he, she, we, you, they)

2. gerund (ing form a a verb: running, swimming, studying)

3. infinitive (to form of a verb: to run, to swim, to study)

these 2 words are NEVER the subject of sentences

there, here

commas are not required between a ____ and a ________ that immediately follows it

verb and preposition, like here there should be no comma between "added" and "whenever"

(e.g. this is INCORRECT: Specifically, an extra leap second is added, whenever time based on the planet's rotation lags behind the clock.)