Confucianism (11/20)

What is the original meaning of the concept of tian?

It is the mandate of heaven, which originally meant that a ruler ruled only if he was good to his people.

What would happen to a kingdom if its ruler lost the mandate of heaven?

The kingdom would be beset by natural disasters, invaded, and the ruler would eventually be overthrown.

By whose time did the concept of the mandate of heaven begin to apply to every individual?

Confucius's time.

What were the two ambiguous interpretations of Confucius's view of "heaven"?

Heaven as a personal God who rewarded and punished, or heaven as a body of natural laws (an impersonal, metaphorical sense).

Which post-Confucius thinker believed that human nature was essentially good at birth?

Mencius (lived about a century after Confucius).

Which post-Confucius thinker believed that human nature was born bad or evil by nature?

Xunzi (Shun Zhi, lived about two centuries after Confucius).

What did Xunzi argue was necessary for people to cultivate goodness, given his view on human nature?

A greater emphasis on laws, rewards, and punishments in a strict society.

What two things did both Mencius and Xunzi agree were essential for promoting virtue and Li?

Education and good government

What Chinese emperor was particularly important in favoring and hiring Confucian scholars as administrators during the Han period (200 BCE–200 CE)?

Emperor Wu

What texts became the basis for government job exams during the Han period, which were falsely believed to have been written or edited by Confucius?

The 5 classics.

Name two ways Confucius's image was magnified during the Han period.

His biography included miracle stories and he was depicted as having held important government positions (even though he didn't).

How long did the Confucian examination system, which geared the entire Chinese educational system, last?

Until the beginning of the last century (early 1900s).

What were two other major religions Confucianism was in competition with between 200 and 1000 CE?

Taoism and Buddhism.

What was the Confucian objection to the Buddhist ideal of celibacy?

It prevented the practice of filial piety (respecting parents) because a celibate monk or nun would not have children to show respect.

Why did Confucians criticize the Buddhist focus on meditation and isolation?

It went against the Confucian ideal of functioning as a social person in the world in order to practice virtue.

What was the ultimate result of Confucianism's arguments against Buddhism and Taoism?

Confucianism became a flexible system that eventually absorbed many Taoist and Buddhist ideas and practices.

When did Neo-Confucianism emerge, and what was its new primary focus compared to earlier Confucianism?

It emerged after the year 1000 , focusing more on philosophical and theological/metaphysical issues rather than just ethics and ritual.

During which dynasty did Neo-Confucianism develop, and what event was interpreted as a sign of China's moral decline?

It developed during the Song dynasty , and the occupation of parts of China by non-Chinese tribes was interpreted as punishment by heaven.

Who was the most influential thinker of Neo-Confucianism (1130–1200)?

Zhu Xi.

In Zhu Xi's metaphysics, what is chi (qi)?

The material/spiritual stuff of existence that everything in the universe is made of (also translated as life force or energy).

In Zhu Xi's metaphysics, what is Li?

The blueprint for the universe that gives it shape, often translated as "principle," and is located in every object.

Why do we see a variety of different objects (humans, animals, rocks) in the universe, even though they all possess the same Li?

Because different objects possess different qualities or purity of chi.

Why did Zhu Xi believe that all human beings are born good?

Because all humans are born with Li inside them, and Li is fundamentally good

How can a person with naturally "poor chi" still become virtuous?

They must work harder to purify their chi and align it with their Li.

What was the ultimate goal of Zhu Xi's ambitious educational program (studying all disciplines)?

To understand the Li (the blueprint of the universe) and how one fits into it, leading to a virtuous life

Name two steps in Zhu Xi's elaborate method for studying the Confucian classics.

1. Preparing for reading by engaging in meditation.

2. Reciting the text over and over (sometimes 50 or 100 times) to internalize the words and reveal deeper insight

What religious practice did Zhu Xi incorporate as a way to "feel the Li" inside one's soul, which was a clear influence from Buddhism?

Meditation (as a way to make contact with the deep Li inside oneself, separate from preparing to read texts).

How did Zhu Xi view the supernatural?

He took religion seriously, accepting the existence of ghosts and spirits and believing they could be contacted through prayer and sacrifices to bring blessings.