Language Conventions

Writing Conventions

Basic rules of written language including grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation

Subject-Verb Agreement

Present-tense verbs should match their subjects in number

Indefinite Pronouns

Non-specific person, place, or thing

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns must match their antecedents in person, number, and gender

Comma Usage: Compound and Compound-Complex Sentences

When 2 independent clauses are joined by coordinating conjunction, use comma before conjunction

Comma Usage: Subordinate Clauses

When subordinate clause comes at beginning of sentence it should be set off from main clause w/ comma

Comma Usage: Introductory Words or Phrases

If sentence starts w/ 2+ prepositional phrases or transition words/phrases, set them off w/ comma

Comma Usage: Direct Address

Set off person’s name or title w/ comma

Comma Usage: Parts of a List

Separate items in list or series w/ comma

Comma Usage: Nonessential Phrase/Modifier/Appositive

Nonessential phrases separated from main clause w/ comma

Nonessential Phrase

Additional info that can be removed while sentence still retains its meaning

Comma Usage: Sequential Adjectives

Separate multiple adjectives describing same noun w/ comma

Comma Usage: Direct Quotations

Separate direct quotations from rest of text w/ comma

Comma Usage: Addresses or numbers

Numbers, parts of address, dates, ages, titles - separate sections w/ comma

Comma Usage: To Eliminate Confusion

W/ repeated words or just to ensure that reader can follow sentence

Comma Splice

Attempt to join 2 independent clauses w/ just a comma

Rules of capitalization

1st word of sentence, abbreviations of states, names of days and months, cities, states, organizations, and ppl, titles of books, newspapers, and magazines

Punctuation

Marks used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning

Period

Appears at end of declarative or imperative sentences as well as abbreviations

Exclamation Point

Appears at end of exclamatory sentences or after interjections

Question Mark

Appears at end of interrogative sentences

Comma

Used to separate words, phrases, or clauses, and to provide clarity within sentences

Semicolon

Separating 2 independent clauses w/o conjunction or separating items in list if commas appear within listed items

Colon

Introduce quotation, example, or list, for emphasis, or in numerical uses

Dash

Indicate range in time or connection btwn things or in place of comma, colon, or parenthesis

Hyphen

Join words or parts of words

Parenthesis

Set of parenthetical expressions or additional info

Brackets

Clarify info that can be removed from sentence

Braces

Used infrequently in writing and more commonly in mathematical expressions to group text together

Apostrophe

Used in contractions and to show possessions

Quotation Mark

Separate direct quotation from rest of sentence, may appear as double or single depending on whether quotation appears within another quotation

Ellipsis

Omit words from quotation

Noun

Person, place, or thing

Adjective

Word that describes noun

Verb

Action or state of being word

Adverb

Word that describes verb or adjective

Preposition

Specifies location, time, or direction

Interjection

Very short sentence that conveys strong emotions

Pronoun

Replaces noun

Conjunction

Connects 2 words, phrases, or clauses

Clause

Group of words that contains subject and verb

4 types of clauses

Independent/main, relative, dependent/subordinate, noun

Independent/Main Clause

Stands alone and can be found in all types of sentences

Relative Clause

Begins w/ relative pronoun and is used to add detail to subject of main clause

Dependent/Subordinate Clause

Begins w/ subordinating conjunction and requires comma if clause is at beginning of sentence

Noun Clause

Functions as noun in main clause

Coordinating Conjunction

Connects 2 clauses

Types of conjunctions (FANBOYS)

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Subordinating Conjunction

Connects dependent clause to independent clause

Common examples of subordinating conjunctions

Although, because, in order to, once, since, though, unless

Sentence Purposes

Sentence’s goal: to express statement, give command, ask question, show emotion

Declarative Sentence

Makes statement or gives opinion

Imperative Sentence

Gives command or request

Interrogative Sentence

Asks question

Exclamatory Sentence

Expresses emotion

4 types of sentence structure

Simple, compound, complex, compound-complex

Simple Sentence

One independent clause

Compound Sentence

2+ independent clauses joined by comma and coordinating conjunction or semicolon

Complex Sentence

1 independent clause and at least 1 dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction

Compound-Complex Sentence

At least 2 independent clauses and at least 1 dependent clause

Phrase

2+ words that convey idea when used together

Appositive Phrase

Restates preceding term by expanding upon it or explaining it in qualifying statement btwn 2 commas

Infinitive Phrase

Includes infinitive (to + verb) and additional words that serve as object or modifiers in phrase

Gerund Phrase

Type of appositional phrase that modifies gerund and behaves like noun

Gerund

Verb + ing

Noun Phrase

Group of words that act as noun in sentence including noun and words that modify noun

Participle Phrase

Phrase that modifies participle or verb ending in -ed or -ing to serve as adjective

Prepositional Phrase

Describes relationship btwn noun and pronoun or another word in sentence usually consisting of preposition, its object, and any words that modify object

2 types of prepositional phrase

Adverbial and adjectival

Adverbial Phrase

Prepositional phrase that modifies verbs

Adjectival Phrase

Prepositional phrase that modifies nouns

Verb Phrase

Composed of main verb and 1+ helping verbs and modifiers

Tier 1: Basic Vocabulary

Common words already familiar to students when they enter school and do not need to be taught in classroom setting

Tier 2: High-Frequency Academic Words

Words that students will encounter frequently in multiple content areas, commonly process words that appear in assessments

Tier 3: Low-Frequency, Domain-Specific Words

Academic words specific to particular content area or discipline, would appear in subject-specific textbook or in glossary of informational text