Commercial Stage 1

What privileges apply to a commercial pilot certificate?

61.133

A commercial pilot can act as PIC while carrying persons or property for compensation or hire.

What limitations apply to a commercial pilot without an instrument rating?

-Cannot carry passengers for compensation or hire on xc flights in excess of 50NM

-Cannot carry passengers for compensation or hire at night.

What qualifies as a high performance aircraft?

The engine is capable of 200 horsepower or more.

To act as PIC of a high performance aircraft, what flight experiences requirements must be met?

Must receive and log ground and flight training in a high performance aircraft and receive a one time logbook endorsement, or hold an appropriate category, class and type certificate.

When may a commercial pilot log flight time as second-in-command?

61.51

-When the pilot holds and appropriate category, class and instrument rating (if required) for the aircraft to be flown

-The aircraft is type rated by the manufacturer for needing more than one pilot

-The operation is rated by the FAA as needing more than more than one pilot.

What operations might the FAA rate as needing more than one pilot?

-Operations under specific regulations such as 121 or 135

-International operations

What qualifies as a commercial pilot operation?

Any operation where a pilot is compensated for their services.

Define common carriage

Holding out of a willingness to transport persons or property from place to place for compensation or hire.

How does a carrier become a common carrier?

A carrier becomes a common carrier when it "holds itself out" by advertising its services to the public.

What are part 121 operations?

Scheduled air carrier and cargo operations. For example, Southwest or UPS.

What are some basic qualifiers of a part 121 operation?

- 5 round trips per week on at least one route between two or more points according to the published flight schedule, per the FAA

- Two pilot operations

- PIC shares 50/50 operational control with a flight dispatcher.

What are part 135 operations?

Commuter and on-demand charter flights. For example, private jets, commercial helicopters, charter flights, etc.

What are some basic qualifiers of a 135 operation?

- 30 or fewer seats

- Maximum payload of 7,500lbs

What is a maximum payload?

The maximum weight of occupants, cargo and baggage excluding usable fuel.

Could you operate a private jet as a part 91 operation?

Yes, part 135 operations refer to a commercial pilot working for a company with a "wet lease", where the customer is provided with the aircraft and the crew. A commercial pilot could operate someones private jet for them and be compensated for their services, while operating under part 91. If the owner of the aircraft is selling seats on their personal private jet, it becomes a part 135 operation and is no longer legal to fly without the proper certification.

Define holding out

AC120-12A Someone is "holding out" when they are advertising their services. Holding out is accomplished by procuring traffic from the general public to be carried by the operator. You don't have to use advertising and marketing to hold out however, if you gain the reputation that you serve all, it constitutes as an offer to carry all customers. For example, if you are wearing a flight school uniform and are known for bringing friends and family back and froth from KMVY, and someone offers to pay you to fly them somewhere and you agree, you are holding out.

Define private carriage

Carriage for hire for one or few selected customers that does not include holding out. You cannot be paid to fly someone in your own plane, but you could be paid to fly someone in their plane.

What are some examples of non-common carriage operations that involve the transportation of persons or property and may involve compensation, but are conducted under part 91?

- Student instruction

- Nonstop air tours within 25 miles that begin and end at the same airport

- Ferry or training flights

- Aerial work operations including crop dusting, banner towing, aerial photography or surveying, firefighting, rotorcraft operations in constructions or repair work, powerline or pipeline control

- Sightseeing flights in hot air balloons or gliders

- Nonstop flights within 25 SM for parachuting

- Operations conducted under part 135 or 375 (rotorcraft external load operations)

- Emergency mail services

- Operations conducted under 91.321 (carriage of candidates in elections)

- Small UAS operations conducted under part 107

Explain in detail a situation where having a commercial pilot certificate isn't sufficient for the operation being conducted.

When you are not type rated for the aircraft to be flown, or in operations where an ATP/additional certification is necessary for the operation. (Multi engine flights, 121/135 flights)

What are the required inspections?

A - Airworthiness Directives (as required)

V - VOR (30 days)

I - Inspections (100 hour, annual)

A - Altimeter (24 calendar months)

T - Transponder (24 calendar months)

E - ELT (12 calendar months)

S - Static/pitot system (24 calendar months)

What is the difference between a 100 hour and an annual?

- Annual is more thorough than 100 HR

- Must be an A&P to complete a 100 HR, but must be an A&P with an IA (inspection authorization) to complete the annual

- 100 HRs are only required "for hire" aircraft, while annual is required for all aircraft.

- If the inspections fall on the same day, the annual can act as a 100 hour, but the 100 hr cannot act as an annual.

What are the required aircraft documents?

A - Airworthiness certificate (Never expires)

R - Registration

R - Radio operaters permit (for international flights)

O - Operating handbook for the aircraft (serial number specific)

W - Weight and balance (in operating handbook)

When does the registration expire?

84FTDUC30

84 calendar months

Foreign registry

Transfer of ownership

Destroyed

U.S. citizenship lost

Cancelled

Sold

30 days after the death of the owner

What are airworthiness directives?

Legally enforceable rules put out by the FAA that correct unsafe components of an aircraft. There are two types - something that you fix one time to make the aircraft airworthy again, or something that must be fixed periodically (every 100 hrs, annually, etc).

What is a special airworthiness certificate?

Also known as a ferry permit. This is issued when an aircraft does not meet the requirements for a standard airworthiness certificate, but may be safely operated under limitations established by the FAA. For example, if you need to take your plane to a mechanic where an annual can be completed after it has already expired, you could get a ferry permit. Obtained through the FSDO.

What are the different classes of medical?

Under 40:

1st class - 12 calendar months

2nd class - 12 calendar months

3rd class - 60 calendar months

Over 40:

1st class - 6 calendar months

2nd class - 12 calendar months

3rd class - 24 calendar months

What is basic med?

Basicmed is an alternative way for pilots to fly without holding an FAA medical as long as they meet certain requirements.

How often do you need to complete a physical examination under basicmed?

Every 48 calendar months, with an additional completion of an online basicmed course (AOPA, Mayoclinic) regardless of age.

What are some limitations of basicmed?

-Aircraft cannot be rated to carry more than 7 occupants

-Must fly below 18000' MSL

Must fly below 250 KTS

-Cannot carry more than 6 passengers

-Cannot fly for compensation or hire

-T/O weight must be less than 12,500 lbs

What are the oxygen requirements?

91.211

12,500-14,000' : Minimum flight crew must be provided with and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes

14,000': Minimum flight crew must be provided with and use supplemental oxygen for the entire flight

15,000': All occupants of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen.

What is hypoxic hypoxia?

Insufficient oxygen available to the body as a whole, caused by high altitudes.

What is histotoxic hypoxia?

Inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen. Oxygen is being transported, but they are unable to make use of it. Caused by drug/alcohol use.

What is hypemic hypoxia?

When blood is not able to transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to the cells. The hemoglobin in the blood is chemically unable to bind with oxygen molecules due to a blood disease or carbon monoxide poisoning.

Stagnent hypoxia

Oxygen rich blood in the lungs is not moving, causing an arm or a leg to "fall asleep". Could be caused by shock, a constricted artery, or excessive G's.

What are the visual illusions?

• Inversion: leveling off from a climb can cause a sensation of tumbling backwards

• Coriolis: quick head movement while in a turn can cause a tumbling sensation

• Elevator: updraft/downdraft can cause sensation of climbing or descending

• False horizon: a cloud or line of city lights can look seem the horizon, causing inaccurate attitude reference

• Leans: returning to wings level from a long sustained turn can cause a sensation of banking in the opposite direction

• Autokinesis: fixation on a light in the distance can cause the light to look like its moving

• Graveyard spin: Recovering from a spin can cause you to to feel that you’re spinning in the opposite direction, trying to correct will cause you to enter another spin.

• Graveyard spiral: When you’re in a bank and losing altitude, you might recognize the loss of altitude but not the bank, and try to correct by pulling up. This just tightens the turn and causes more rapid altitude loss

• Somotogravic: acceleration or decelration can cause you to feel like you’re pitching up or pitching down

Define density altitude

Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature

How does air density affect density altitude?

Low air density - higher density altitude

High air density- lower density altitude

Is higher or lower density altitude better for aircraft performance?

Low density altitude - increased aircraft performance

High density altitude - decreased aircraft performance.

How does density altitude affect engine performance?

High density altitude decreases engine performance as there is less air to use in the fuel/air mixture. Dense air is more compact, and has more oxygen molecules in the same amount of volume than thin air. More oxygen mass in the cylinders allows you to burn more fuel, giving you more power.

How does density altitude affect propeller performance?

The propeller works by "grabbing" the air and propelling it backwards to generate thrust. Less dense air means that there are less oxygen molecules for the propeller to push against, meaning that there is less thrust generated for the same RPM that you would use in denser air.

How does density altitude affect lift?

When air is thinner, there are fewer oxygen molecules flowing over the surface of the wing, which reduces lift at any given airspeed. In order to generate the same amount of lift, the aircraft must fly faster through the air, decreasing engine performance. When air is denser, the wings can push more mass downward, which creates more lift.

What is Bernoullis principle?

The principle that faster moving air causes an area of lower pressure than faster moving air.

What factors affect air density?

PHAT

• Pressure

• Humidity

• Altitude

• Temperature

What affect does humidity have on air density?

Water vapor weighs less than nitrogen or oxygen, but takes up around the same amount of space. When you have more water vapor in the air, the air has less mass, meaning it is less dense. If the humidity is high, your aircraft will perform as though it is several hundred feet higher than it is.

How does temperature affect humidity?

The higher the temperature, the greater amount of water vapor that air can hold.

What is the center of gravity?

The point where the weight of your aircraft is perfectly balanced.

What is the center of lift?

The CL is where your lift is concentrated upwards from the wing, also known as the center of pressure. It is always located aft of the aircrafts center of gravity, when the aircraft is loaded within CG limits.

How will you aircraft perform with a forward CG?

- More longitudinal stability

- Less fuel efficient due to increased drag

- Higher stall speed due to higher AOA

- Good stall recovery

A forward CG will naturally have a downward pitching moment. This means it will naturally resist a stall, but it also means it will require a continuous force from the horizontal stabilizer (elevator) in order to counter the nose down tendencies. This higher AOA creates more drag, decreasing efficiency and increasing fuel consumption.

How will the aircraft perform with an aft CG?

- Less longitudinal stability

- More fuel efficient due to reduced drag

- Lower stall speed

- Poor stall recovery

With weight concentrated farther back, the aircraft doesn't need as large of a force from the horizontal stabilizer, meaning you don't need as high of an AOA to equalize lift and weight. This means your aircraft is more fuel efficient and generates less drag than a forward CG. However, an aft CG makes the aircraft more maneuverable and less stable, which makes recovering from a stall more challenging.

Will the aircraft perform better with a forward or aft CG?

Increasing the downward force with the horizontal stabilizer means that the effective weight is increased, which means lift must also increase in order to maintain straight and level flight. Constantly requiring a higher AOA during cruise flight leads to increased drag and less fuel efficiency. The trade-off between efficiency and stability means that the aft CG is more desirable for aircraft performance, as long as the negative stall characteristics are managed.

What is tail down force?

Tail down force is generated by the downward force of the horizontal stabilizer. It has a natural negative angle of attack, meaning that it generates lift in the opposite direction of the wing. When you increase tail down force to counteract a forward CG, it adds to the effective weight of the aircraft. In order to maintain equilibrium we need to increase lift to counter the weight of the aircraft in addition to the tail down force. This creates more drag and reduces aircraft efficiency.

What are the two types of drag?

Induced drag and parasite drag.

Why do our planes have forward CG?

Increased stability and less maneuverability is a better option for trainer planes, as recovering from a stall is easier.

Define induced drag

Induced drag is created as a result of the aircraft generating lift. Wingtip vortices generated by the pressure differential change the direction and speed of the airflow behind the trailing edge of the wing. The airflow deflects downward, creating a downwash. As downwash increases, drag increases.

What are wingtip vortices?

When air flows over the aircraft wing, the shape of the airfoil creates low pressure above the wing and relatively higher pressure below the wing. Air tends to flow from areas of high pressure to low pressure, so the air flows from below the wing to the upper surface of the wing. This movement happens at the wingtip- air moves out from under the wings, swirls around the tip and tries to enter the low pressure region at the top. This circular motion that the air moves in is call a vortex.

What are the types of parasite drag?

Form- Generated by the aircraft and airflow about it. Air must separate to move around the aircraft.

Skin friction- Caused by contact of the moving air with the surface of the aircraft. On a microscopic level the plane has a. rough and ragged surface.

Interference- Intersections of airstreams that restrict smooth airflow. At the intersection of the fuselage and the wing there is a lot of interference drag because air flowing around the fuselage collides with air flowing over the wing.

Define the term "service ceiling"

The height above sea level at which a normal-rated load is unable to climb above 100 FPM at standard atmospheric conditions.

Will an aircraft always be capable of climbing to and maintain its service ceiling?

No. Factors such as weight, air temperature, atmospheric conditions or engine performance may affect ability to reach and stay at that altitude.

Define absolute ceiling

The altitude at which a climb is no longer possible. The engines are operating at maximum power, but because the air is so thin the lift generated is only sufficient to maintain level flight because it matches the weight of the aircraft.

What is ground effect?

The surface of the earth interferes with the wingtip vortices generated by the aircraft, preventing them from fully expanding. As a result, you notice a decrease in induced drag, with an increase in lift. This added lift creates the "cushion" of air that causes the plane to float right before touch down.

When does ground effect occur?

When the aircraft is flying at an altitude roughly equal to or less than the planes wingspan above the ground.

What is the differences between maximum range and maximum endurance?

Endurance is a measurement of the maximum amount of time an aircraft can stay airborne, while range is a measurement of the maximum distance an aircraft can travel on a fuel load.

What factors affect aircraft performance during takeoff and landing?

Weight, altitude, air temperature, density altitude, wind.

What is the difference between a course and a heading?

Heading is the direction the aircraft is pointing, while course is its path over the ground. (Affected by wind)

What are the VFR fuel requirements?

91.151

Enough fuel to fly to point of intended landing + 30 minutes at normal cruise during the day, or 45 minutes cruise at night.

Know how to read METARS, TAFS, PIREPS, Prog charts

What is dew point?

The temperature that air must cool to before it becomes saturated.

What are AIRMETS?

Weather advisory for meteorological hazards particularly dangerous for small aircraft. Valid for 6 hours, issued 4x.

Tango - Turbulence, LLWS, surface winds 30KT or more

Sierra - IFR, montain obscuration

Zulu - Icing, freezing level.

What is a SIGMET?

Significant meteorological advisory for hazardous weather. Issued as required, valid for 4 hours.

S - severe…
T - turbulence not associated with TS
I - severe icing not associated with TS
D - dust storm lowering sfc vis beliw 3 SM
S - sand storm lowering sfc vis below 3 SM

What are convective SIGMETS?

Sigmets related to hazardous convective weather. Issued hourly, valid for two hours.

• Hail 3/4" thick in diameter,

• Embedded thunderstorms,

• Line of thunderstorms 60 miles long, 40% of length

• Thunderstorms with heavy precipitation affecting 40% of a 3000sq mi area,

• Tornadoes

• Surface winds 50KTS or greater.

Describe a cold front.

Faster moving. Good visibility, unstable air, cumulus clouds, showery precipitation.

A cold, dense, air mass pushes under a warm, lighter air mass and forces it to rise. As the warm air rises, it is forced to cool and condense, causing precipitation and thunderstorms. As the cold front moves through, cool, fair weather is likely to follow.

Describe a warm front.

Slower moving. Poor visibility, stable air, stratus type clouds, and steady (light) precipitation.

A relatively moist, warm air mass slides up and over a cold mass. As the warm mass rises, the air cools and condenses, causing a broad layer of clouds and rain or snow. As the warm front passes, temperatures rise.

Is a cold or warm front "worse" weather?

Both bring precipitation, clouds and undesirable weather. However, a cold front moves faster and is more unstable so cold front activity tends to be more severe.

Describe a stationary front.

When equal masses of cold and warm fronts meet moving in opposite directions. Experience a mix of both cold and warm front attributes. Moves very slowly or not at all.

Describe an occluded front.

A fast moving cold front catches up to a slow moving warm front and you experience a rapid change in weather between cold and warm fronts.

Warm front occlusion is when the air ahead of the warm front is cooler than the cold front. This is when embedded thunderstorms, fog and rain are likely to occur.

Cold front occlusion is when the air ahead of the warm front is warmer than the cold front. This is where you would experience a mix between cold and warm front type weather.

Define a trough

A long band of low pressure across a large area.

Describe isobars

Lines joining points of equal pressure on a PROG chart. THe closer the lines are together, the more rapidly wind speed may change (more wind).

Describe a high pressure system

Outward, downwards, clockwise. Air spreads away from the system and the air from above descends. This air warms and the moisture evaporates, leading to light winds and clear skies.

Describe a low pressure system

Inward, outwards, counterclockwise. Air converges and is forced to rise, bringing stronger winds, cloudy skies and precipitation as rising air cools and condenses.

At what rates does atmospheric pressure decrease with an increase in altitude?

1" Mg per 1000'

Adiabatic lapse rate

The lapse rate is the rate at which temperature decreases with height in the atmosphere.

Dry: 3 celcius/ 1000 feet

Moist: 1.5 celcius/1000 feet.

What conditions are necessary for structural icing to occur?

Must be flying through visible moisture and the temperature of the collecting surface must be 0 degrees.

What are the different types of icing?

Clear - Large supercooled liquid droplets hit the aircraft and freeze slowly as they roll back, causing a thick, glossy transparent ice.

Rime - Smaller supercooled liquid droplets freeze instantly as they hit the surface of the aircraft, trapping pockets of air within them. This gives ice a milky white appearance.

Mixed - A mixture of both types of icing.

Which icing is the most dangerous?

Clear icing because it is the heaviest, and harder to detect due to its appearance.

What should you do in case of icing?

-Turn on pitot heat and use alternate static in order to prevent a loss of your pitot/static instruments.

- Disengage autopilot (if applicable) and hand fly the aircraft

-Request a change in altitude to look for a warmer temperature

-Declare an emergency

What factors must be present for a thunderstorm to form?

Unstable atmosphere, moisture, lifting action.

What are the three stages of a thunderstorm?

Cumulus, mature, dissipating.

What is a microburst?

Intense localized downdraft during a thunderstorm that can cause dangerous wind shear.

What weather products can be displayed on the Garmin 430 with ADSB-in?

METAR, TAF, radar.

Could you use the graphical NEXRAD radar displayed on the Garmin 430 to navigate around a thunderstorm?

It could be used for situational awareness, but the radar is delayed and should not be used as a current assessment of thunderstorm location and intensity.

What type of engine is in the C172?

Lycoming textron 360 IO L2A

Horizontally opposed (cylinders are arranged laying flat on either side of a central crankshaft)

Air cooled (We do not require a liquid/oil coolant, instead air runs through the cowling and over the engine to cool it)

Naturally aspirated (we do not have a turbocharger or super charger to maintain sea level atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes, so engine performance decreases with altitude)

Direct drive (crankshaft is directly connected to the propeller so they spin at the same RPM)

360 cubic inches (measurement of volume within the cylinders)

IO- fuel injected, horizontally opposed

L2A- Accessory pack on the air craft, including starter, dual magnetos, dual vacuum pumps, engine driven belt alternator, full flow oil filter.

How does the engine start in a C172?

The key is connected to the battery. When you turn the key it closes a circuit that connects the battery to a starter motor. The starter motor has a gear that pops out and connects to the starter cog, and it begins to turn. The starter cog turns the central crankshaft which turns the mags. 4 wires connect magnetos to each cylinder. The magnetos generate electricity that is sent through these wires to the spark plugs in the cylinder. The spark plug ignites and causes the combustion of the fuel air mixture in the cylinders that keeps the crankshaft turning. As the crankshaft spins, its turns the alternator belt, allowing electrical components and avionics to run.

How do magnetos work?

A permanent magnet spins in close proximity to a coiled wire. As the magnet spins it generates a strong electrical force that is "held back" by this primary coil. Once the contact point is opened, a rapid magnetic flow generates a high voltage in the secondary coils that ignite the spark plugs and fire the engine. We have dual magnetos, and each magneto is connected to one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder. If one magneto fails, the engine will still run but with less efficiency

What is the highest RPM for R/S models?

R: 2400

S: 2700

What horsepower are the R/S models?

R: 160

S: 180

What is detonation?

The abrupt combustion or explosion of the fuel charge inside the cylinder. When detonation occurs, the fuel ignites in an uncontrolled explosion that causes a pounding force on the piston rather than a steady push.

How could you detect detonation?

Light detonation may not show any indication in the cabin. Moderate to severe detonation may be noticed as engine roughness, vibration or loss of power and eventually engine damage.

What causes detonation?

- Incorrect fuel

- Excessive leaning at high power settings

- Cracked or damaged spark plugs

- Engine overheating.

How do you deal with detonation?

Enrich the mixture, increase airspeed and lower the RPM in order to cool the engine.

What is preignition?

The ignition of the fuel/air mixture prior to the normal starting event (spark plug firing). The piston moves up, but since the fuel/air mixture has already ignited it creates excessive pressure, resistance and heat as the piston tries to compress the expanding hot gas.