Classics Midterm 2 History

Women during the late republic (augustan period)

• most of the information we know is on elite women at this time period, it’s less clear what non elite women were doing

• Women are not allowed to:

  • hold office

  • fight in a war

  • vote

  • operate without a guardian (usually their husband or father is their guardian)

• Because of this, they are rarely present in art or busts and sculptures because they aren’t fighting wars or voting or holding office (common actions people are taking when made into sculptures)

• public presence of women increases during augustan period, starting to show up in art and architecture

  • could be because of large changes in politics and gov

  • the question is whether Augustus is a symptom of the cultural revolution (aka just right time) or if he is a catalyst for this movement

• Ara Pacis is an example of how rights were changing at this time for women: the first time women and children were on a public sculpture in the Roman era

Patria potestas

Father or husband of a woman

• the appointed guardian for a woman, they must accompany women on tasks

Women naming convention

• Their names come from their family name

• example: daughter of Julius is Julia

  • if he had a second daughter: Julia II

Free men naming convention in Rome

• men born free

• they have three part names

• the middle name is their family name

Rights of free women in late republic

• **again, mostly elite women

• can own property, and own enslaved persons on their own

• can inherit land (from a father for example)

• can initiate lawsuits and divorces

  • divorce is common at this time because marriages are very political, and since so many marriages are for alliance divorces are not uncommon

  • early in republic they need their Patria potestas to agree, later in republic they can initiate divorce without patria potestas

Where did the Roman views on women originate

• likely from etruscan culture, where women were viewed as near equals to men (uncommon in most past cultures)

  • example: the sarcophagus of the spouses where the men and women are dining together on equal grounds

• Some eastern cultures also valued women more

• Italic groups also valued women (south of modern day rome, around the same time as Etruria)

Occupations of elite women

• ideally they are matrona: the matron or wife, you ideally marry into an elite family

• Priestess (if they want a public honor)

  • Vestal virgins: a cult that chooses virgin women. Once they retire (after 30 years) they do not need a guardian after.

  • the wife of the high priest of jupiter is a high position (high priest of jupiter has a tall hat)

occupations of comen women

• more blue collar jobs (but some are more involved)

• shop owners involved in commerce, manufacturing

• some are sex workers (usually really lower class or enslaved women)

Occupations of enslaved women

• usually sex workers or enslaved on farms or in shops

Expectations for roman women (virtues)

• Pietas

• Pudicitia

Pietas

• a virtue for roman women

• dutiful in a religious sense and to your family, community and god

Pudicitia

• virtue for women to be modest, and demure in your public persona

Alternative participation of women in politics

• auctoritas

Auctoritas

• women influencing politics and civic sphere through influencing the decisions of their fathers and husbands

Cleolia

• one of the few women with a public statue on display in Rome

• was a prisoner of war in the early 5th century (early roman republic) and was taken across the Tiber into the enemies camp

• the general is inspired by her and gives her an option to be returned to Rome, or let able bodies young men in the Roman military to return home

• she sacrifices herself and lets the young romans go back

• she is given an equestrian statue of Cleolia (the maiden) sitting on the horse

• this is a distinctly feminine way of being a hero (since she is on a horse)

Cornelia

• given a posthumuous public statue (after she died)

• she was the daughter of Africanus (who conquested the city of carthage)

• mother of the Gracchi brothers (pure blodded roman men)

• the base of the statue is the only part left, and it names Cornelia’s largest accomplishment of continuing the family line

Livia

• augustus’ third wife (mother of Tiberius)

• Tiberius becomes the second emperor of Rome after Augustus

• She is a more prominent woman that has some statues dedicated to her at this time

Portrait of Livia

• in 35 BCE augustus sets up a statue of Livia in Rome, but they don’t survive

• likely was a standing portrait where Livia was covered up (showing pudicitia) and pietas

• They found another one in 4 CE in Egypt that looks quite similar to what the 35 BCE might have looked like

• it is marble, has a nodus, never ages, always looks young and eager (sets the stage for future women portraits that will always have very delicate features)

Octavia

• sister of Augustus (more porminent than Livia was during this time)

• she was married formerly to Mark Antony (as a political alliance)

• she was the mother of Marcellus (who died)

Portrait of Octavia

• also was set up in 35 BCE but didn’t last in Rome

• likely also a standing portrait looking pious and modest

• they found another one in the early 30’s BCE and it was a life size marble sculpture

• again with a nodus

  • has an idealized face

  • her image used to be shown alongside mark antony on the coins in the army

Julia

• only child of augustus

• mother of gaius and lucius

• she is shunned in Roman society because her main goal was to procreate, she often was cheating, and she did something horrible that Roman sources always alluded to but never stated.

Laws changing womens roles under augustus

• 18 BCE: requirement to marry

  • if you remain unmarried there is a penalty

  • augustus wants to control bodies of unmarried women (makes sure that women procreate and continue the roman state)

• 17 BCE

  • law criminalizing adultery

• 9 CCE

  • law promoting procreation with tax breaks for parents, women have more freedom without a guardian after they have 3-5 children (that survive!! there is a high child mortality rate at this time)

Porticus Liviae

• livia (the wife of Augustus) builds a porticus on the esquiline hill (the area where wealthy people live) between 15 and 7 BCE

• has one stone altar for the goddess concordia (ara concordia) means altar concordia

• the goddess of harmony and marriage with Livia as the patron

• paid for by augustus to honor his wife

porticus

covered walkway with columns creating a place to walk through

Porticus Octaviae

• built 27-23 BCE (super fast!!)

• in the campus martius (the area where all the triumphs and manubial temples are, a woman taking space in a male dominated field)

• has two temples

  • temple to juno: originally built in 179 BCE as a manubial temple

  • temple of jupiter: added in 146 BCE

• 27 BCE: Octavia removes the old names and adds hers as the patron keeping the original temples

• builds new structures dedicated to her dead son Marcellus: library and schools behind the porticus. Also builds a new curia: Curia Octaviae (she is trying to pull the strings!!)

• likely built with her own money (but sources conflicted on this)

manumission/ manumissio

release from slavery by the authority of the owner

Slavery in the roman world

• its a social status

• anyone can be or become enslaved

• most are prisoners of war, or greeks taken back to Rome

• because its a social class, there is social mobility to move out of this class

Class structure in Rome

• elites

• upper class

• middle class

• lower class (includes some free born citizens and freedmen who were previously slaves)

• slaves

How were slaves released

• freed in wills

  • the owner of the slave states they are free in their will

  • not always because they are nice, often to show their wealth, that they think of these slaves as objects and are willing to let a few go because there family has the money to get more

  • the most common way slaves are freed

• Buying freedom

  • some slaves create arrangements with their owners or get paid by them, and create savings to buy freedom

  • less common

libertus (naming and rights)

• male freedperson (used to be a slave and is now free)

• Name:

  • get a roman three part name

  • the first two names are roman (taking the name of old owner)

  • last name is there actual name

  • Marcus tullius tiro (his real name is tiro)

• Rights

  • get to vote

  • can marry, have kids and the born kids are roman citizens

  • for this to happen, the person you marry has to be a free born person or a freedman

  • this ends the cycle of enslavement, but there are less chances for you to become wealthier

• Third generation of freedperson can run for office!

Freedpersons in Rome’s patron/client system

• once free, you become the client for your old owner (who is the patron)

• they support their patron politically and civically

liberta

• freed woman from enslavement

• same rules otherwise

freedpersons in the late republic/early empire

• more visible in art and architecture

• more wars and conquest means more wealth for the elites which trickles down and allows for social mobility

Freedpersons funerary monuments

• new form/genre of art:

  • truncated bust portraits, shows they are proud of their newfound participation in roman communities

  • they emphasize the citizenship they now have by carving their names into statues with L in the middle for libertus/a

• Free status is proven in their sculptures

  • women: they have draped heads (showing piety), rings, freedborn children without the L in their name

  • men: citizen toga (only free men in Rome are allowed to wear this)

• Often have family groups, showing that your current freedom lets your whole family become free

Other funerary reliefs

Funerary relief of P Aiedius Amphio and Aledia

• female is idealized

• man looks veristic

• holding hands means they are married, and recently freed from the same owner

Funerary relief of the vibii:

• the backwards C scribed before a name (that has an L) means they used to be owned by a female

Rules of funerary commemoration in late republic/early empire

• large monuments made from expensive material (shows wealth and prestige)

  • ie: Tomb of Caecilia Metella: huge monument with concrete and travertine)

  • its a tholos style building that is super big

• engage the viewer using words or images/design

  • example: pyramid of Cestius in Rome which is a pyramid, engaging because it is unique compared to other Roman art

• Location

  • want a spot outside of the city but as close to possible to the entrance of the city

Eumachia

• woman with unofficial power and influence in Pompeii

• builds and dedicates a large civic building with temples to concordia (taking note from Livia) in pompeii (largest building in pompeii) to herself and her son

• giving back to the city through artistic means starts to influence the city and her own power (also helps the career of her son)

• likely built with her own money

Provincial ownership under augustus

• provinces (or other towns Rome extends its power over) are run in two different ways

  • senatorial leadership

  • imperial control

• there are also client kingdoms which operate a bit differently than both

Provinces under senatorial leadership

• someone is voted by the Roman senate to go serve as the governor of the province

• no roman troops stationed in this province

• considered a safe territory that Rome has significant control over (no threat of uprising)

Provinces under imperial control

• augustus directly plays a role in governing them, he chooses the governor of the province

• usually regions on the border that are more important or have more uprisings

• they do have roman troops there

• governors are all Roman, the army is loyal to rome

• people who live there are both natives + loyal people to rome

Gaul in late republic/early empire

• modern day france

• a province with imperial control (has troops present)

Pre roman gual split in two categories

• southern gaul: deeply connected to the med sea, part of trade and commerce

• northern gaul: gallic or celtic groups living in hill top forts, main export with med sea is metal

impact of roman conquest in Gaul

• the roman troops living in Gaul need to be fed and need resources (expands the trade network in gaul through the sea)

• building more civic infrastructure (because roman troops need it)

• new people settling there (roman army veterans or loyalists)

• a lot of local culture persists and blends with the roman culture

Glanum

• area in the north of Gaul settles by Gallic people (likely in 6th or 5th BCE)

• a lot of roman veterans settle here after Caesar fights Gallic wars

• creates gallo-roman culture and identities

Glanum arch

• possible a triumphal arch, but also it is in built into the city walls outside of Glanum so unclear

• 10-25 BCE

• Romans normally build arches similar to this to show their dominance when people enter a city

• reliefs on the arch show victory over local barbarians

  • show barbarians vs roman army

  • show the people that become enslaved

  • men are often shown as nude (their masculinity is stripped once a slave) and the women are in “mourning”

Client kingdoms

• different than the other two forms of admin

• the local leader stays in power but is loyal to Rome

• this is done because Rome thinks the local person can keep the population in better control, and collect taxes more easily.

• they keep barbarian groups at bay in their own way

• the clients (the people that are local and stay in control) like the autonomy and get the backing of the Roman army in case things go wrong

Herod

expands kingdom of Judea under augustus

• he is a client (and judea is a client kingdom) giving gateway to east

• his rise:

  • flees to Rome in 40 BCE when parthians attack Judea

  • rome helps him secure monarchy

  • teams up with antony but quickly switches to Octavians side

  • octavian helps him resettle judea and pacify land and he becomes a king of judea

  • gets some of the land cleopatra had taken from Rome

  • his rise happens at the same time as augustus, he also builds civic structures in the east

Herod’s reign

• rules from 37 BCE to 4 BCE

• builds in style of eastern greats

  • huge palaces

    • Herodium: large palace at the top of a hill with its own sports area

  • urban amenities

    • theaters, forums, harbor at Caesarea maritima

  • religious structures

    • his land has jews and christians so he builds temple in jerusalem and a temple to augustus and roma

Temple to augustus and roma

• built at Caesarea maritima (the first harbor along the levantine coast)

• not in a roman style, it is very much greek (peripteral columns, no podium, entrance technically all around)

• but it is facing the water making it seem like you have to access from the front (brings the idea of frontal axial orientation)

• Roma: goddess and patron diety of Rome)

• a temple for augustus when he is still alive

  • foreign concept in Rome, but common in the east to build statues for their leaders

• how did locals react?

  • many jewish people living around, but this temple was off on the side from the rest of the city

  • jews are against polytheism so they probably didn’t like it, but Herod was also building things for the jewish people (their temple in jerusalem in 20 BCE) so they likely ignored this

  • this temple was more for those coming into the coast to trade

Herod had a hellenistic style of building different monuments for different groups of people

what message did the temple have

-he was loyal to rome

the harbor caters to the trading industry and displays wealth

Pompeii

• smaller than Rome, but mid sized city in Campania (south of rome) near the bay of naples

• near the base of vesuvius (southeast of the volcano)

• another city that was just west of vesuvius was herculaneum

Plinian phase of vesuvius

• longer phase (18-20 hours)

• volcanic column of pumice, ash and hot gases are elevated vertically due to high temperatures

• there is magma and dark clouds in the air

• debris builds up 10-20 miles away

• the location and build up of debris in this phase is caused by wind patterns, herculaneum didn’t get much build up meaning that the winds were moving northwest to southeast

• the debris from this phase is at first white (super hot) and then grey (a little less hot)

• killed about 400 people

  • mostly found indoors, killed by falling buildings from buildup of ash on the buildings

Plinian phase of vesuvius accounts

• we learn about this phase from Pliny the elder (a historian) that later died after the eruption

• he explains this part of the eruption in his book

Pelean phase

• second much shorter phase

• 1-2 hours

• avalanche (pyroclastic surge) of hot gases, pumice and ash flows down the volcano

• occurs bc its not warm enough to keep the vertical column

• the lava moves down the volcano in waves

• 6 waves were documented in herculaneum only 3 in pompeii (in pompeii- 6-8 feet of the surge build up)

• this phase the build up depends on how close you are to the volcano

• killed 700 bodies, people died instantly from the thermal shock of the gas

  • we know this because of the detailed faces and life like poses of individuals when they died

art of victims of pompeii

• there is plaster put around the bones of people that died during the pyroclastic surge. (pelean second phase)

Pugilistic poses

• represents a boxer stance

• the limbs are extended

• this occurs because of extreme rigor mortis (you body has unconscious intense muscular activity when dealing with the high heat and you can’t control your body)

• the tissue of the body degrades but the bones remained and are plastered for art

What happened to pompeii survivors

• the city likely had 20k people, but only 1200 found dead

• there were “pompeii quarters” in Naples (nearby city) so some may have escaped there

why have the paintings in pompeii survived after the Mt. Vesuvius eruption

the fresco paintings are bound to the wall, because water based paints are applied to west plaster on the wall to seal it and keep the color.

the paint (local) colors are black, red, yello and white (they are made from local plant matter in bay of naples)

imported colors are the rest, and more expensive BUT recently we have foudn evidence of lower class people having these different colors, maybe not as expensive as we thought!

August Mau

he determined the four styles of painting during the late republic early empire in Rome. Tells us that art in Rome is tied to socio political events in roman history, and art is purposeful.

popular iconographies in pompeii/rome in late republic

• ariadnne on naxos

  • woman abandoned on the island of naxos

  • she fell asleep and a cupid comes to help dionysus find her

• narcissus

  • he is so obsessed with himself he becomes a flower, wasted away

  • his gaze engages the viewer

  • he is looking down at a reflection of himself

  • you are processing that your own gaze lingers over him just like his gaze does

Julio claudian dynasty

• augustus rules from 31 BCE to 14 CE

  • he chooses different successors. but they all die before he does

• tiberius

  • rules from 14 CE to 37 CE

  • son of livia (from a previous marriage) so step son of augustus

• Caligula

  • grand nephew of augustus

  • 37-41 CE

  • he is the first emperor to show he is a bad person, assasinated by his own guard

  • thought of himself as god on earth

  • he has no son heir, so claudius (who was LITERALLY hiding behind a curtain after his assasination) becomes leader

  • his portraits look similar to Augustus, likely to make the public trust him and verify his blood relation to him

• Claudius

  • 41-68 CE

  • he is the first emperor to depart from Augustus’ serene youthful face and go to the veristic face

    • perhaps because he comes to power much older than the rest

    • he was previously eliminated from the “running” for emperor because of his limp and lisp

    • not “publicly presentable”

    • verism connects him to older leaders and plays on his wisdom as an older man

Art changes during Claudius

• roman emperors start presenting themselves different during claudius rule

• portrait of claudius

  • has an eagle at his foot representing jupiter

  • before, mortals would not connect themselves to gods (or say they are gods on earth)

  • when claudius comes to power, other people start making comparisons of the emperor to gods

  • he holds a sector, is wearing a corona civica (meant for those that save the roman state) and a paludamentum (worn by generals)

Nero

• rules from 54-68 CE

• comes after claudius (his mom wants him to come to power so she marries claudius and poisons him so nero can rule)

• he is related to livia and augustus

• comes to power at 20 (youngest to lead)

• Nero actually shows himself aging in portraits and sculptures (departs from the precedent augustus set)

  • old portraits he looks slim and young

  • later he has a beard (significant because normally you only show a beard in mourning or in army) and his face is chubbier

  • shows his love for greek traditions where philosophers/greeks have beards

• during his reign the public didn’t mind him because he supported public entertainment with theaters and performances

  • historians say he was bad

great fire of rome

Fire ravages rome for 9 days straight in July of 64 CE (most things were built of wood and easily burned)

• subura neighborhood destroyed

• nero blames the christians for starting the fire

• Nero comes back from playing in the theater, and builds his own palace in the city center ( a very greek thing to do) right over the ruins from the fire

Domus transitoria and Domus Aurea

• land burned during the great fire of 64 CE was used by Nero to build a new palace

• built from 64-68 CE

• this gives us evidence for the concrete revolution, where Romans start building concrete building with large vaulted ceilings in the first century CE

• this was bad for roman people: took over public land and buiilt a greek style palace (since it was in the city center)

• some call him selfish for building this

• others say:

  • after destruction of city, he wanted to remake it to look like the beautiful cities of the east

• after the fire, Nero wants to use fire proof material so they move to built with roman concrete

  • pros: cheap to produce (local materials and laborers don’t need to be skilled), fire resistant

  • cons: looks ugly, how do we hide this ugly exterior?

Nero’s death

commits suicide in 68 CE, there is a civil war of 69 CE

• a bunch of different troops back different potential leaders

• they kill each other and Vespasian? comes out on top to establish the Flavian dynasty, curry favor from people by taking the manmade lake and building the colosseum (flavian amphitheater)

Flavian Dynasty

• Vespasian won in the civil war of 69 CE

• referenced augustus when winning to legitimize themselves (focused on the face that they won against foreign enemies and ignored the part that they had to fight other Romans in a civil war to win this position - similar to augustus avoiding his claim to the leadership after defeating mark antony)

Inagural games in the colosseum

• under titus (son of Vespasian)

• first 100 days had battles

• there were beast hunts (herbivores vs carnivores etc)

• 5k - 9k animals were killed

• lots of random exotic animals (display wealth of the flavians and connection to the outside world)

• these games give you faith in the new dynasty and entertainment (after Nero and civil war!!)

Colosseum activities

• there were beast hunts

• crucifixions (usually not fun to watch but they had more fun public executions with myth reenactments as well)

• mock naval battles (at the start before the concrete core was built), gladiatorial games (gladiators vs beast)

Gladiators/gladiatorial games

• trained in schools

• have a harsh life (most of them do not choose this occupation, but are recruited or slaves

• there is some acting involved to make it seem more dramatic

• they usually have “celebrity status” but it is not a position most people want

• gladiatorial combat is well planned out (you want a fair and good fight, and the schools don’t want their good fighters to die)

• These are popular as a form of entertainment, “thank god I’m not a gladiator”, emphasis on violence throughout Roman history / how important conquest is, idea of these games taken from etruscan, encourages public life participation, emperor is also at the games watching so you can shout things at them but then distract them with the games

• if you win a certain number of games, you are granted freedom and rebirth back into society (given a wooden sword)

Opus testaceum

concrete pour faced and stabilized with brick

• on all sides: triangular bricks in a wedge shape that are pushed into the concrete

• this stabilizes the concrete and keeps the structure looking clean

• there also would have been a thin amount of marble on top of the concrete (looks good and cheaper than a lot of marble)

Remains of Domus aurea

• this was part of the palace Nero built after the great Roman fires of 64 CE

• most was destroyed or remade by other emperors

• small underground passage on the esquiline hill survives

• project designed by celer and severus

• abandoned the old “post and lintel system”

  • old system was a 90 degree angle between the wall and ceiling (posts were vertical elements, held up by a horiztonally laid lintel)

• Instead they started to use concrete vaulting

  • concrete can make really tall buildings and top is vaulted or curved in a downward arch (stone couldn’t be used for this because it would collapse at this height)

  • concrete lets you transfer weight along the vaulted arch and transfer it all the way to the concrete in the ground

  • piers (massive concrete pillars) support the weight of the ceiling above it

• Paintings

  • show transitionary time between third and fourth style of Roman painting

• Octagonal dining room

  • most impressive room

  • it was on a revolving platform

  • diners seated there would move in a circle

  • concrete dome with a small oculus at the top (oculus means something looking like an eye, in this case there was a small opening at the top as a skylight)

  • the piers are the pillars of concrete holding up the dome

  • there are still 8 vertical piers (so its not fully spherical)

  • there is still stone present to reinforce the concrete

  • in the oculus, there is a brick ring that distributes compression forces

  • in the past, there were painted images in the sky of this dome for diners to look at

military pieces/reliefs

usually public pieces of art, not private!!

Vespasian

• rules 69-69 CE

• sets up the flavian dynasty

• respected commander, not from a big elite family, came up through military ranks, big in jewish wars, has a lot of troop support, sacks the city of jerusalem

Triumphal arch of tiberius at orange (in france)

• oldest arch in a province of Rome

• 3 bay arch

• entablature shows reliefs of the conquest

• built during the time of Tiberius (the son of Livia, step son of Augustus)

  • asserts roman conquest showing the pacification of the territory

  • shows that you have to keep going back to pacify the territory after conquest

  • built in stone, showing the longevity of Roman rule

• arches have decorations

  • one side has roman victory, with roman trophy (shields from conquest) and the captured barbarians with their hands bound behind their backs

    • reminds locals who is in power

  • other parts show the battle

    • various parts of ships (naval victory), general spolia, images of battle

• this arch has heavy outlining (typical of gallic/gaul master art)

prelude to high empire

• second century CE

• 96 CE: domitian is killed (had a long reign) and it ends the flavian dynasty

• assassinated through a conspiracy involving the senate, court officials, and imperial freedmen (people of different social classes)

• he was popular with people and troops but not with the roman elite / senate

  • elites thought he was more autocratic (reality is that domitian didn’t like the elite and made that clear)

• elites are just scared because they don’t want the troops to take power from them

Nerva

appointed to be emperor by the senate as a “placeholder”, he ruled from 96-98 CE

• he was old (66) when appointed as princeps

• appointed as a safe person to keep the elite/senate powerful

• he helps present civil war (because the last time the augustus family died there was civil war)

• before he died in 98 CE he adopted Trajan to be his succesor

  • this adoption of a successor became commonplace in the roman empire after this

  • nerva lacked support from the people and troops, so he appointed trajan who was popular with the people and troops

Forums in the city of Rome

Forum of julius caesar, forum of augustus, Nerva’s forum (originally built by Domitian but replaced by Nerva), forum of peace (built by vespasius to bring peace after Nero), Trajan’s forum

Trajan

• ruled from 98-117 CE

• was adopted by Nerva to be the princeps

• he was the first emperor born outside of the italian peninsula (born in modern day spain)

• he was a successful military officer and remained an active general as a princeps of Rome

• known as the “optimus princeps” or the best leader Rome ever had because the empire reached its largest extent under Trajan (more land and resources!!)

Trajan’s forum

• follows legacy of julius caesar where he builds a forum in the city to disrupt activity and curry favor with the public

• laid out similar to the forum of augustus

  • you walk in, have a long view to the back with porticos on the right and left side

  • there are two symmetrical arched bays along the porticos

  • they link trajan with the forum of augustus that had statues of the founders of Rome in the bayes

• instead of a temple at the back of the hallway is a large basilica (for administration and law and order)

  • this is perpendicular to the entrance

  • after passing through the basilica you enter the temple for the deified trajan, two libraries on the side, and the column of trajan in the middle

• forum of trajan is paid ex manubii (from the spoils of conquest over dacian people, modern day romania and a mineral rich region)

• instead of the caryatids (the women) holding up the second floor roof in the forum of augustus

  • forum of trajan has dacian captives (with beards, pants, long hair) holding up the roofs

  • the captive prisoners indicates this is a manubial structure

  • also shows that the empire is now built on the conquests of other people

  • in between the dacian captives are shield portraits (in forum of augustus these were jupiter with ram horns to show alexander the great) but in forum of trajan it shows previous and current imperial family portraits

  • draws connections to how imperial families are like modern day gods and should be worshipped like the gods used to be

Column of trajan

• 100 feet tall victory monument (it is this tall because they had to dig up 100 feet of earth to build the monument) but also commemorates the engineering feat to build this

• large base of column: decorated with spolia of war (shields and stuff from Dacian victory)

• the rest of the monument has a spiraling relief showing

  • bottom half is the first war against the Dacians

  • top half is the second war against Dacians

  • after the second war rome has full control over them

• inspiration:

  • modern day germany provinces had columns like this but for deities or local gods

  • roman art takes this provincial influence and bends it with historical tellings common to roman art

iconography of column of trajan

• don’t focus on realities of war (the people on the sculptures are almost the same size as the large buildings etc, the focus is on the people)

• there are images of death and battle, but more is focused on the admin work, building new structures, making the roman presence permanent in the new space

• makes the idea clear that conquest is about more than just the battle, its about making an uncivilized place more civilized and roman

• you don’t necessarily have to circle the columns to understand what you are seeing

• really high reliefs (the bodies look almost disengaged from background, makes it easy to see)

• adlocutio: formal address to the troops

  • trajan is often seen giving an adlocutio to his troops

  • trajan also looks bigger or is in the center of the group, has his hands raised etc

  • he is always present in different scenes, showing that he is an active part of conquest

  • trajan is a good leader showing piety (head covered), mercy to barbarians (he won’t kill them)

sculptures on the trajan column

battle scenes: the roman army looks well organized vs dacians look disorganized

scutum are the rectangular shields used by Romans

testudo: roman battle formation is like a tortoise shell and it allows them to beat the dacians

gods usually don’t show up, they want to show that it was because of trajan that they won

• Nyx does show up to tell you the battle occured at night

Some think that the circular pattern of having to walk around the column becomes decursio: a ritual where troops move in a circle after the death of a general

trajan’s (and his wife’s) ashes were placed at the bottom of the column after their death

at the top of the column: men and women and animals from Dacia are led into exile (being enslaved and taking over resources is part of war!!)

pantheon

• means “all god”

• this was a temple to all the gods

• originally built by Mark Agrippa (right hand man for augustus) but was later started by Trajan and finished by Hadrian after him

• Original purpose of pantheon: unclear because at the time there was no worship of the emperors yet

• in second century CE: there has been deification for lots of emperors, maybe this was a sit of worship for the imperial cult

We know the date of finishing the pantheon is 123 CE because of the stamps within the bricks (also say it was finished under Hadrian)

• hadrian adds an inscription saying that Marcus Agrippa created this building (securing his legitimacy by tying him to a past leader)

In antiquity:

• ground level in rome was lower, so you walk in to a hall with long porticos and frontal axial orientation

• you have a triangular pediment, agrippa’s name, corinthian capitals, octostyle (8 columns) so the approach seems very traditional

• then you walk inside and get confused because there is an oculus (dome) with an open space making you lose your orientation

• perfect sphere dome constructed in concrete

• behind the coffers (sunken square shaped panels in a vault) is the opus test… that is covered up

• largest unreinforced dome in the world

• they varied the weight of the concrete by doing a lighter aggregate as you moved up higher

• walls of the pantheon right at the spot the dome starts are really thick helping channel down all the weight through the piers into the ground

• marble on the floor has been replaced over time but they have different geometric designs that are the same as before

double pediment

• happened likely because the pantheon was supposed to have 50 foot tall columns but it likely was lost so they rebuilt a second pediment

• the engineer was probably the same one that built the forum of trajan and the column of trajan