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Octavian

Adopted son of Caesar and his heir; later became Augustus and first Roman emperor

Marc Antony

Roman general and ally of Caesar who competed with Octavian for power

Cleopatra

Queen of Egypt who allied with Caesar and Antony to protect Egypt and gain power

Why did Octavian ally with Antony

Neither could defeat Caesar's assassins alone and needed power, money, and military strength

Triumvirate

Group of three men sharing political power

Second Triumvirate

Octavian, Marc Antony, Lepidus; formed to defeat Caesar's assassins and control Rome

Did Antony miscalculate

Yes, alliance with Cleopatra let Octavian portray him as disloyal to Rome

Why Cleopatra judged negatively

Octavian propaganda showed her as manipulative foreign seductress

Why Cleopatra impressive ruler

Spoke many languages, educated, skilled politician, protected Egypt, made strong alliances

Donations of Alexandria

Land given by Antony to Cleopatra's children, angered Romans

Octavian political attack

Spread Antony's will, said he favored Cleopatra over Rome

Battle of Actium

Naval battle where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra (31 BCE)

Death of Antony and Cleopatra

Both committed suicide after defeat by Octavian

Augustus

Title of Octavian meaning "majestic one"; first emperor of Rome

How Augustus changed Rome

Kept republic appearance but held all real power

Institutions Augustus kept

Senate, consuls, magistrates, assemblies

New institutions Augustus created

Praetorian Guard, standing army, imperial provinces, principate

Principate

System where emperor ruled as "first citizen"

Augustan reforms

Fair taxes, merit officials, building projects, strong army, marriage laws

Standing army

Permanent paid army loyal to emperor

Praetorian Guard

Elite soldiers protecting the emperor

Language Augustus used

Called himself protector, savior, princeps, not dictator

Augustan Synthesis

Mix of republic traditions with one-man rule

Pattern for emperors

Keep peace, control army, act like princeps, keep illusion of republic

Successors of Augustus

Many weak or tyrannical but system survived

Pax Romana

Long period of peace and stability under Roman Empire

Benefits of Pax Romana

Trade, roads, law, peace, safe travel, strong army

Aelius Aristides view

Rome brought order, fairness, peace, discipline, prosperity

Benefits of Roman rule

Law, citizenship, trade, infrastructure, stability

Why empire held together

Army, roads, coinage, law, bureaucracy

Roman rule in Judea

Heavy taxes, foreign rule, tension with religion

Why Jews divided

Different responses to Roman rule

Pharisees

Followed law strictly, avoided rebellion

Sadducees

Elite priests, cooperated with Rome

Zealots

Wanted violent revolt against Rome

Essenes

Religious separatists expecting apocalypse

Apocalyptic message

God will soon judge world and create new kingdom

Messiah

Chosen leader sent by God to save people

Why Romans crucified Jews

Crucifixion used for rebels and threats

Gospel

Account of life and teachings of Jesus

New Testament

Christian writings about Jesus and apostles

Main Sermon on Mount ideas

Humility, mercy, forgiveness, love enemies

Golden Rule

Treat others how you want to be treated

Jesus and law

Spirit of law more important than rules

Why Jesus dangerous to Rome

Talk of kingdom of God sounded like rebellion

Paul

Spread Christianity to Gentiles and outside Judaism

Paul's changes

Faith over law, open to non-Jews

Old rules dropped

Circumcision, dietary laws, temple sacrifice

Baptism

Ritual washing symbolizing entry to Christianity

Eucharist

Bread and wine representing Jesus' body and blood

Why Christianity spread

Hope, equality, strong community, salvation

Pax Romana helped

Good roads, travel, common language

Why Christians persecuted

Refused to worship Roman gods or emperor

Pliny and Trajan

Punish Christians if proven, don't hunt them

Why Romans suspicious

Christians seemed disloyal and secretive

Why Christianity grew

Hope, charity, strong beliefs, missionaries

Constantine

Emperor who legalized Christianity

Edict of Milan

Allowed religious freedom (313 CE)

Council of Nicaea

Meeting to settle debate about Jesus' divinity

Arian heresy

Said Jesus not fully divine

Nicene Creed

Said Jesus equal to God; Trinity belief

Trinity

Father, Son, Holy Spirit as one God

Theodosian Code

Made Christianity official religion

Causes of fall of Rome

Overexpansion, taxes, weak army, disease, invasions

Why Rome vulnerable

Long borders, weak leaders, slow communication

Signs of decline

Civil wars, corruption, invasions, inequality

Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire that survived

Constantinople

Capital in strong trade and defense location

Justinian

Codified law, built Hagia Sophia, reconquered land

Caesaropapism

Emperor controls church and state

Feudalism

System of land for loyalty after Rome fell

Role of Church

Preserved learning, united people, advised rulers

Charlemagne

Frankish king crowned emperor in 800

Why crowning important

Revived Roman Empire in West

Who objected

Byzantine emperors

Why East survived

Strong trade, location, army, government

Why West weaker

Feudalism, less trade, weak central power

Great Schism

Split between Catholic West and Orthodox East

Roman Catholic

Latin, pope leader, priests unmarried

Eastern Orthodox

Greek, patriarchs, priests could marry