PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University

Who originally said that change is the only constant?

Roman philosopher Lucretius 2,000 years ago

When was Darwins Origin of Species written?

1859

Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection.

There is, he argued, tremendous variation among the members of any given species.

Some of these variations are well suited to current conditions; others are not. Individuals with favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce, so succeeding generations are more likely to show helpful characteristics. Thus, features that contribute to survival are "selected" by the environment, a process Darwin called natural selection.

Was Darwin aware of the genetic basis for evolution by natural selection?

no

Who was the first person to understand the role of genetics?

Gregor Mendel (father of genetics) published his work in 1866.

Although Darwin did not understand the genetic basis for evolution, he was aware that _____ (2 things)

variation within a species was common

selective breeding of farm animals with a specific variation often resulted in offspring with that characteristic.

What did Dawkin's pebbly beach analogy illustrate about natural selection?

pebbles arrange themselves based on the flow of water and density and size of the rocks.

Intelligent direction isn't required. The environment "selects" desirable characteristics and spurns undesirable ones.

What are mutations?

Abrupt changes in genes.

What can cause a mutation?

Can be caused by exposure to radiation and certain chemicals and perhaps by viral infections.

In what case will mutation be passed on to the next generation?

when mutations occur in genes of reproductive cells (sperm or ova)

Can mutations occur in any cell of the body?

yes

Will offspring with mutated genes necessarily display the mutation?

no

Are mutations always detrimental to survival?

Many of these changes are simply of no consequence, one way or the other

Occasionally can be useful to survival. (new horn mutation useful for defense)

What is a reflex?

A reflex is a relationship between a specific event and a simple response to that event. A reflex is a relationship between certain kinds of events.

Give an example of a reflex.

Food in the mouth elicits the salivary reflex, the flow of saliva that begins the process of digestion.

What is reflex failure? When can it occur?

Reflex failure is when a reflex fails to function properly.

This can happen as a result of:
-allergic reaction to medication
-injury or disease.
-excessive alcohol or other drugs that depress the central nervous system.

Reflexes are highly ___________

stereotypic

that is, they are remarkably consistent in form, frequency, strength, and time of appearance during development.

What is sensitization? Give an example.

Eliciting a reflex response can increase the intensity or probability of the response to stimuli.

Hearing a loud noise that makes you jump can make you more sensitive to noises that arent as loud.

What happened when Kelly Powell and Stephen Holtzman (2001) gave rats morphine for one to four days and then tested their reaction to the drug after a period of abstinence?

The rats showed an increased response to morphine (i.e., sensitization) for up to three months after their last dose.

What is habituation? Give an example.

Repeatedly evoking a given reflex response will result in a reduction in the intensity or probability of the response.

Cats slowly become used to a loud noise when exposed to it multiple times.

Define a FAP. Give an example.

A series of interrelated acts found in all or nearly all members of a species.

When confronted by a threatening dog, the house cat arches its back, hisses, growls, and flicks its tail. These acts make the cat appear larger and more formidable than it really is and may therefore serve to put off an attacker.

What were FAP called in the past?

Instincts

What is a releaser?

An event that triggers a fixed action pattern.

red is a releaser for the stickleback fish.

What did Wilson claim were humans FAP?

Biophelia and aversion to incest

Define a general behavior trait.

the tendency to engage in a certain kind of behaviour. (strongly influenced by genes)

Example: shy/outgoing, aggressive/mild, introversion/extraversion, anxious/relaxed, adventurous/cautious.

How do FAPs and behavior traits differ?

FAP are elicited by fairly specific events (releasers). Behavior traits occur in a wide variety of situations.

Do behavior traits have a genetic influence?

yes even though they are more variable. Dog like traits in foxes were bred through a number of generations.

Define learning.

Learning is a change in behavior due to experience.

Learning is a product of natural selection.

evolved modifiability

Learning does not give the species the tendency to behave a certain way in a new situation; rather, it gives the individual the tendency to modify its behavior to suit that situation.

Russell's views about human superiority over other species.

One by one, the characteristics that we have held to be uniquely human have been found in other species.

Perhaps the only uniquely human characteristic is this: So far as we know, we are the only creature that spends time trying to prove its superiority over other creatures.

Betty Hart and Todd did a longitudinal study of the verbal environment provided by parents with different educational backgrounds. . What did they find?

Those children whose parents talked to them a lot (providing lengthy explanations and lots of positive feedback, for example) later scored higher on intelligence and vocabulary tests than those children whose parents were more closed off.

How long has Learning been the subject of scientific analysis?

about 100 years

What is constructivism?

There is a school of thought, popular in university social science departments and in colleges of education, that says the scientific method that has served the world so well for 400 years is now outmoded, that science is just a debate about an unknowable reality.

What is an operational definition

For research purposes, behavior must be defined in terms of its measurement. Because the operation used to measure behavior defines it, this is called an operational definition.

What is a stimulus?

an event that can affect or is capable of affecting behavior.

What are stimuli?

Stimuli are physical events: An increase in temperature.

Describe the measure of learning: reduction in errors

A common way of measuring learning is to look for a reduction in errors.
A rat can be said to have learned to run a maze to the extent that it goes from
start to finish without taking a wrong turn. As training progresses, the rat
will make fewer and fewer errors

Describe the measure of learning: topography

the form a behavior takes

Topography may be used as a measure of learning in mirror tracing. The task is to trace a form while looking at its reflection in a mirror. It is harder than it sounds, and at first the pencil line meanders wildly. With practice, however, a person can trace the shape rather neatly. The change in topography is a measure of learning.

Describe the measure of learning: intensity

When a laboratory rat learns to press a lever, the resistance of the lever
may be increased so that greater force is required to depress it. The increase in pressure exerted by the rat is a measure of learning

Describe the measure of learning:speed

A change in the speed with which a behavior is performed is another measure
of learning. The rat that has learned to run a maze reaches the goal faster
than an untrained rat

Describe the measure of learning:latency

the time that passes before a behavior occurs.

Describe the measure of learning: rate or frequency

These terms refer to the number of occurrences per unit of
time. A pigeon may peck a disk at the rate of, say, five to ten times a minute.
The experimenter may then attempt to increase or decrease the rate of disk
pecking. The resulting change in rate is a measure of learning

Identify and explain the three major reasons for using animals in research on learning.

Influence and control over heredity

It is possible to control their learning history. Can control their environment.

Possible to do research otherwise unethical on humans.

What is the most common objection to using animals in research on learning?

Chief objection is that animals are different from humans. Therefore one needs to be careful about generalizing information and research from animals to humans.

No practical value.

Intrinsically unethical. Animal rights.

Naturan selection is usually ____ the times

behind

What were the psychic secretions that became a focus of Pavlov's work?

When he noticed that a dog salivated before getting food he called this a "psychic secretion" and assumed that these were caused by thoughts, memories, or wishes of the animal.

Is the presentation of the two stimuli (i.e., the neutral stimulus and the unconditional stimulus) independent of the behavior of the animal in pavlovian conditioning?

Yes

What type of behavior is subject to Pavlovian conditioning?

Reflex responses such as salivating, blinking an eye, sweating, or jumping in response to a loud noise.

How can response latency be used to measure Pavlovian conditioning?

If the dog begins salivating after the CS begins but before the presentation of the US, conditioning has occurred. In this case, the amount of learning can be measured in terms of the latency of the response—the interval between the onset of the CS and the
first appearance of saliva. As the number of CS-US pairings increases, the response
latency diminishes; the dog may begin salivating even before the tone
has stopped sounding.

Describe the use of test trials to measure Pavlovian conditioning.

In some conditioning studies, the interval between CS onset and the appearance of the US is so short that using response latency as a measure of learning is very difficult.

One way to test for conditioning in these situations is to use test trials This involves presenting the CS alone (i.e., without the US) every now and then, perhaps on every fifth trial. I

Describe the method of measuring Pavlovian conditioning by means of intensity or amplitude of the CR.

Another way to measure Pavlovian learning is to measure the intensity or strength (sometimes called amplitude) of the CR. Pavlov found that the first CRs were apt to be very weak—a drop or two of saliva. But with repeated trials, the saliva flow in response to the CS increased rapidly. The increase in the number of drops of saliva is a measure of learning.

pseudoconditioning

Pseudoconditioning is the tendency of a neutral stimulus to elicit a CR after a US has elicited a reflex response.

trace conditioning

the CS begins and ends before the US is presented.

delayed conditioning

the CS and US overlap.

simultaneous conditioning

the CS and US coincide exactly.

backward conditioning

the CS follows the US

Contiguity in pavlovian conditioning

Contiguity refers to the closeness in time or space between two events. In Pavlovian conditioning, contiguity usually refers to the interval between the CS and US.

Define overshadowing

When using compound stimuli one stimulus is much stronger at evoking a CR than the other.

2 neutral stimulus (compound) paired with UCS. When neutral stimuli presented separately and only one of them provokes a CR.

latent inhibition

The appearance of a stimulus in the absence of a US interferes with the subsequent ability of that stimulus to become a CS.

A dog that has heard a bell many times before. It will be more difficult for this to become a CS.

Define blocking

In blocking, a CS is initially established in the standard fashion (by pairing it with a US). Then, in subsequent trials, this CS is simultaneously presented with a neutral stimulus and both stimuli are then followed by the US. If the neutral stimulus fails to come to function as a CS, we say that the previously established CS blocked the neutral stimulus from becoming a CS.

What is sensory preconditioning

Sensory preconditioning is the pairing of 2 CS without an UCS. Once repeated enough one of the stimuli is paired with a UCS. Once this stimuli is established then using the second stimuli that was not used will evoke a CR.

Describe the relationship between the number of pairings of the CS and US on Pavlovian conditioning. Is the relationship linear?

the more often the CS and US appear together, the more likely a conditional response is to occur.

However, the relationship between the number of stimulus pairings and the amount of learning is not linear: The first several pairings are more important than later ones. Thus, conditioning usually follows a decelerating curve

What is the relationship between length of the intertrial interval and the effectiveness of Pavlovian conditioning?

In general, experiments comparing various intertrial intervals find that longer intervals are more effective than shorter ones.

How does Pavlovian extinction differ from forgetting?

Forgetting involves a removal from training for a retention interval. Then retesting. If deterioration in performance then forgetting has occurred.

Extinction involves the continued training ie: presentation of food but with no conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's stimulus substitution theory

According to Pavlov, then, conditioning does not involve the acquisition of any new behavior, but rather the tendency to respond in old ways to new stimuli. The CS merely substitutes for the US in evoking the reflex response. This is called stimulus-substitution theory.

preparatory response theory (pavlovian)

Theory of Pavlovian conditioning that proposes that the CR prepares the organism for the occurrence of the US.

When a dog responds to a bell by salivating, this behavior prepares the animal for the food to come. By beginning to salivate before food arrives the dog prepares to digest the food it will receive.

What predictions can the preparatory response theory create?

Drug overdoses may be due to a change in environment. The environment (CS) prepares for the drug by decreasing sensitivity.

The same amount of drug taken elsewhere does not have the CS and a overdose may occur.

Does pavlovian conditioning always involve awareness?

No, word association tests (with a shock) showed a CS but could not list the word associated.

counterconditioning

This use of Pavlovian procedures to reverse the unwanted effects of conditioning is called counterconditioning.

broad term for systematic desentization or other type of exposure therapy

Another name for counterconditioning therapy

exposure therapy.

Systematic desensitization

a procedure in which a phobic person imagines a very weak form of the frightening CS while relaxed.

In vivo desensitization

similar to systematic desensitization except that real feared stimuli, rather than imagined stimuli, are presented.

conditioned suppression

A reduction in the rate of responding due to the noncontingent presentation of an aversive CS.

Describe Pavlov's study in which an aversive stimulus was established as a CS

Pavlov followed an electric shock with food. Incredibly, the dog soon salivated in response to the shock, just as it might have salivated in response to a bell. In other words, the shock became a CS for salivating.

The word "reflex" is a synonym for _______

unconditional reflex

CER (conditioned emotional response)

emotional reactions, including
not only fear but love, hate, and disgust, are largely learned, and they are
learned mainly through Pavlovian conditioning. Watson called them conditioned
emotional responses.

Aversion Therapy

One such treatment is called aversion therapy. A CS that elicits inappropriate
sexual arousal is paired with a US that elicits an unpleasant response (often
nausea

Flooding

Flooding is a method for treating phobias in which the feared stimuli (i.e., the fear conditioned stimuli) are presented in intense and maximal form without predicting any US. Flooding therapy is based on Pavlovian extinction: by presenting a CS in the absence of the US, fearful responding can undergo extinction.

Covert Sensitization

A variation of aversion therapy where the patient imagines the inappropriate behavior and then is presented with an extremely unpleasant odor.

law of effect

Behavior is a function of its consequences.

either positive or negative outcomes.

operant learning

Experiences whereby behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences became known as operant learning because the behavior operates on the environment.

instrumental learning

Another term for operant conditioning.The behavior is typically instrumental in producing important consequences, so this type of learning is also sometimes called instrumental learning.

reinforcement

In learning, reinforcement means an increase in the strength of behavior due to its consequence.

Name the three essential features of reinforcement.

a behavior must have a consequence.

the behavior must increase in strength (e.g., occur more often)

the increase in strength must be the result of the consequence.

Positive

stimulus is presented (normally something sought after): positive reinforcement, positive punishment.

Negative

Stimulus is removed (normally an aversive): negative reinforcement, negative punishment

Escape

In escape, an organism's response terminates an aversive stimulus

If the level of the target behavior increases only when applying the aversive stimulus, then the increase in behavior is owing to escape conditioning.

Avoidance

In avoidance, the response prevents or postpones a consequence.

If the level of the target behavior increases only when applying the aversive stimulus, then the increase in behavior is owing to escape conditioning. However, if the level of the target behavior increases at other times, then the increase in behavior is owing to avoidance conditioning.

Both avoidance and escape _______ the level of the target behavior

increase

Shaping

A method for generating new behavior in which responses that are increasingly like the goal behavior are successively reinforced.

operant extinction

previously reinforced responses are no longer reinforced, and decline in strength due to nonreinforcement.

pavlovian forgetting

responses do not occur over a period of time and decline in strength due to nonoccurrence.

discrete trial procedure

the behavior of the participant ends the trial. For example, each time one of Thorndike's cats escaped from a box, that marked the end of the trial.

free operant procedure

Skinner used a free operant procedure in his research. In this approach, the behavior may be repeated any number of times.

For instance, in some experiments Skinner placed a rat in an operant chamber equipped with a lever. Pressing the lever might cause a bit of food to fall into a tray, but the rat was free to return to the lever and press it again and again.

Pavlovian conditioning typically involves _________(reflexive) behavior, such as the blink of an eye or the secretion of digestive juices; operant learning usually involves _______ behavior, such as the wink of an eye or the purchase of food.

involuntary, voluntary

What four advantages do conditioned (secondary) reinforcers have over unconditioned (or primary) reinforcers?

secondary reinforcers tend to be very durable

it is often much easier to reinforce behavior immediately with them than with primary reinforcers.

they are often less disruptive than primary reinforcers.

they can be used in many different situations.

The effectiveness of secondary reinforcers depends on their association with _______

primary reinforcers.

generalized reinforcers

Reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers can be used in a wide variety of situations. Such reinforcers are called generalized reinforcers. The most obvious example of a generalized reinforcer may be money.

What five factors are responsible for the effective use of shaping?

First, they reinforce small steps.

Second, good trainers provide immediate reinforcement.

Third, good shapers provide small reinforcers.

Fourth, good shapers reinforce the best approximation available.

Fifth, good trainers back up when necessary.

behavior chain

a connected sequence of behavior.

making a telephone call: You pick up the receiver, listen for a dial tone, punch a set of numbers, and hold the receiver to your ear.