Developmental Psychology: Childhood to Adulthood

What promotes peer relationships according to cognitive developmental theory?

Perspective-taking promotes peer relationships.

What does social cognitive theory emphasize regarding self-regulation?

Self-regulation means less need for external shaping.

What is the focus of social information processing theory?

It examines the bidirectional relation between social database and social situations.

Who developed the social information processing theory?

Ken Dodge.

What is the first step in Ken Dodge's social information processing model?

Encoding cues.

How do aggressive children interpret social cues according to Dodge's model?

Aggressive children have aggressive attributions.

What is the goal clarification step for aggressive children in Dodge's model?

Aggressive children have self-focused goals.

What type of responses do aggressive children construct in response to social situations?

Aggressive children construct less acceptable responses.

How do aggressive children view their responses in Dodge's model?

They view hostile responses positively.

What is the shift in self-concept during middle childhood?

There is a shift from physical to psychological self-concept.

How do children in middle childhood evaluate their abilities?

They use social comparison to evaluate their own abilities.

What is the initial effect of social comparison on self-esteem during middle childhood?

Self-esteem initially declines.

What can promote self-esteem according to the notes?

Authoritative parenting styles can promote self-esteem.

What mindset is encouraged to support children's development?

Growth mindset.

How do girls and boys differ in their self-definitions during middle childhood?

Girls are more likely to define themselves by groups and view themselves higher in reading, while boys view themselves higher in math and physical abilities.

What is a cycle that can occur with self-esteem in middle childhood?

Self-perpetuating cycles of self-esteem.

What is learned helplessness?

A condition where individuals believe they cannot control their outcomes, leading to a lack of effort.

What is an important aspect of the 'self' in middle childhood?

The 'self' becomes more complex, recognizing strengths and weaknesses.

What role does closeness to parents play in self-esteem?

Closeness to parents can positively influence self-esteem.

What is the significance of social acceptance by peers?

Social acceptance by peers is an influencing factor for self-esteem.

What role do peers play in a child's development during middle childhood?

Peers provide real-world social skills practice, help children broaden their experiences, and can pressure them to conform.

What are the short-term benefits of positive peer relationships?

They are associated with a more positive outlook.

What are the long-term benefits of positive peer relationships?

They lead to better interpersonal relationships in adolescence and adulthood and a lower likelihood of experiencing mental health problems.

How do friendships during middle childhood differ from mere acquaintances?

Friendships are based on personal qualities and meeting emotional needs, rather than just contextual interactions.

What qualities do children look for in friends during middle childhood?

Children believe friends should be nice, trustworthy, and similar in personality and behavior.

What functions do friendships serve for children?

Friendships provide companionship, affection, intimacy, ego support, stimulation, physical support, and social comparison.

How do friendships help children manage emotions and stress?

They help children learn to control emotions, communicate with others, and manage stress, making them less likely to experience bullying.

What gender differences exist in friendships during middle childhood?

Friendships are mostly same-sex, with girls tending to develop closer friendships and seeking confidants.

What is the sociometric classification in peer acceptance research?

It compares popular children to socially rejected children based on their social interactions and skills.

What traits are common among popular children?

They interact with more peers, form friendships with other popular individuals, are socially skilled, have higher self-esteem, and demonstrate social competence.

What characteristics are often seen in unpopular or rejected children?

They may be more aggressive, disruptive, non-conforming, and may show inappropriate responses to conflict.

What percentage of school-aged children report experiencing harassment?

Over 80% report experiencing harassment in school at least once.

What types of bullying exist?

Bullying can be verbal, physical, relational, or cyber.

What are common characteristics of children who are bullied?

They are often loners, passive, socially withdrawn, cry easily, and may lack social skills.

What characteristics are often found in children who bully others?

They may have lower school achievement, come from abusive home environments, engage in delinquency, and show little remorse.

What impacts can bullying have on children?

It can lead to significant mental, developmental, and social issues.

How can bystander interventions be effective in bullying situations?

Bystander interventions can help reduce bullying and support victims.

What are some characteristics of effective schools?

Effective schools have energetic leadership, empowered teachers and students, an orderly atmosphere, smaller class sizes, and high expectations.

How do teachers impact children's social and emotional development?

Teachers influence children's achievement and learning through high expectations, effective classroom management, and fostering positive relationships.

What is the Pygmalion effect in education?

It refers to the phenomenon where higher expectations from teachers lead to improved student performance.

What role does the emotional climate of a school play in development?

It directly influences children's learning, achievement, and career aspirations.

Why is the importance of relationships emphasized in education?

Positive adult relationships contribute significantly to children's social and emotional development.

What is the focus of Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory?

It emphasizes stages of cognitive development, including concrete operations, and concepts like reversibility, decentration, transitivity, and class inclusion.

What should educators provide according to Piaget's theory?

Stimulating materials for active discovery and instruction tailored to the student's cognitive development level.

What is Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory in education?

It emphasizes the importance of social interactions and cooperative learning in the learning process.

What does ZPD stand for in Vygotsky's theory?

Zone of Proximal Development, which refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance.

How can educators apply Vygotsky's theory in the classroom?

By assessing students' ZPD, using more-skilled peers for assistance, monitoring private speech, and providing meaningful contexts.

What are some key components of Information Processing Theory?

Increased memory capacity, selective attention, working memory, and improvements in data processing through techniques like mnemonics and elaboration.

What is the role of ecological systems theory in education?

It helps educators understand a student's performance by considering the various environmental systems that influence development.

How is intelligence defined in the context of intellectual development?

As the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and effectively address challenges using resources.

What is the difference between achievement and intelligence?

Achievement refers to acquired knowledge or performance, while intelligence is an underlying competency or cognitive ability.

What is creativity in the context of intellectual development?

The ability to do novel things, solve problems without expected solutions, and engage in divergent thinking.

What are Sternberg's three types of intelligence?

Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

How many domains of intelligence did Gardner propose?

Eight domains of intelligence.

What is emotional intelligence according to Meyer and Salovey?

The ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions and the emotions of others.

What does the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory encompass?

It includes general intelligence, broad abilities, and narrow abilities.

What characterizes intellectual disability?

Low IQ and low adaptive functioning, classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on adaptive functioning.

What defines giftedness in students?

Outstanding abilities, high performance, wisdom, intelligence, and creativity.

What is IQ?

IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a measure of a person's intellectual abilities in relation to others.

What are some applications of Information Processing Theory in education?

Varying lessons, personalizing instruction, and making linkages to enhance learning.

What is the significance of perspective taking in Piaget's educational approach?

It encourages incorporating peer interaction and facilitated discussion to enhance understanding.

What is the importance of monitoring private speech in Vygotsky's theory?

It helps students internalize their thought processes and enhances their learning through self-guidance.

What is the typical range for intelligence test scores?

85-115

What intelligence score is considered a disability?

Below 70

What intelligence score is considered gifted?

Above 130

Name three common intelligence tests.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (5th ed), Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test (5th ed), Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (2nd ed)

What is Erikson's theory of identity development focused on?

The exploration of independence, development of self, and the search for a sense of self and personal identity.

What are Marcia's four statuses of identity?

Identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement.

What characterizes identity moratorium?

An individual is in crisis with multiple options and has not committed to any identity.

Provide an example of identity moratorium.

Megan, a 14-year-old, is unsure whether to get married and have children or become a neurosurgeon.

What characterizes identity achievement?

An individual is in crisis with options but has made a commitment to one of the choices.

Provide an example of identity achievement.

Suzanne, 17, questions her religion but ultimately commits to the same religion she was raised in.

What characterizes identity diffusion?

An individual has not experienced a crisis and has not committed to any identity.

Provide an example of identity diffusion.

Lorraine, 16, has never thought about life after high school and will decide when the time comes.

What characterizes identity foreclosure?

An individual has made a decision without considering other options and has not experienced a crisis.

Provide an example of identity foreclosure.

Bill plans to go into his father's business without considering other options.

What are some roles of identity?

Vocational/career, political, religious, relationship, achievement/intellectual, sexual, cultural/ethnic, interests, personality, and physical.

What are the stages of career choice according to Ginzberg?

Fantasy period, tentative period, and realistic period.

What are Holland's six personality types related to career development?

Realistic, intellectual, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic.

What is the purpose of career assessment in modern career development?

To identify strengths and weaknesses.

What does the investigation stage of career development involve?

Researching different job opportunities.

What is involved in the preparation stage of career development?

Getting ready to enter a career through specific education programs or job training.

What does commitment in career development mean?

Actively making a decision about a certain career.

What is retention in the context of career development?

Achieving a level of comfort in one's chosen career.

What does transition in career development refer to?

Starting to feel discomfort in one's career and making conscious changes to career choice.

What historic role differences exist regarding gender in work?

Gender differences persist, including a pay gap.

Why do people work?

For various reasons including economic necessity, personal fulfillment, and social identity.

What are the two types of motivation discussed in the notes?

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

What are the three key components of satisfaction mentioned?

Autonomy, mastery, and purpose.

What is a recommended strategy for adolescents and early adults when considering career choices?

Systematically evaluate a variety of choices.

What should individuals create to assess potential career gains and losses?

A 'balance sheet' listing the potential gains and losses from a particular profession.

What is a significant trend regarding marriage in adulthood?

Delaying marriage and forgoing marriage.

What are the age ranges for middle and late adulthood?

Middle adulthood: 40-60 years; Late adulthood: 60+ years.

What are the two key conflicts in Erikson's theory relevant to aging?

Generativity vs stagnation and ego integrity vs despair.

What are some psychological factors that contribute to positive aging according to Peck's Theory?

Valuing wisdom, socializing in relationships, emotional flexibility, and mental flexibility.

What contextual factors are associated with positive aging according to Rowe & Kahn?

Healthy lifestyle, personal relationships, self-efficacy, productive activities.

What is the hourglass effect in social relationships?

It refers to the element of choice and more egalitarian relationships in adulthood.

What is socioemotional selectivity theory?

A theory that suggests that as people age, they prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships.

What are the patterns of satisfaction in familial relationships mentioned?

Satisfaction patterns include moving out, moving back, and different approaches to love and support.

What challenges do women face in the workforce according to the notes?

Wage gap, glass ceiling, and fewer women in high managerial roles.