native americans

Little crows war 1862

Santee struggled on reservation, gov wouldn’t open emergency stores. Little crow attacked, reservation officers - 20 dead, us army - 21 dead. Had to surrender and 700 warriors died

300-400 warriors sentence to death, moved to crow creak reservation, little crow was assassinated

The great Sioux war - 1875-77

10,000 miners went into Sioux land, general cluster with 700 groups attacked 1,500 NA, 270 troupes died

Beat cluster, government were harsher. Sitting bull tribe fled to Canada. Lakota and Cheyenne couldn’t leave reservation and army kept watch

Sand creak massacre - 1862

Cheyenne hunting outside reservations, governor Evan forced army to kill NA, tribe flew a white flag, 700 soldiers were killed and 105 innocent NA women and children were killed

Tribes fought back, 1,500 cattle stolen, government apologised and promised money and better land (never happened), black kettle was killed in 1868

Problem with funding - education

Some Indian agents didn’t use funding correctly, low funding = poor teaching and limited curriculum

Features of education on reservation

English, reading, writing, maths, some vocational skills. Teachers who came didn’t last long due to conditions and language

What were the of-reservation schools

Children from 6-18 were selected, $20,000 spent on education, used to assimilate youths

• Hampton normal and agricultural institute

• Carlisle Indian industrial school

Boys = carpentry, masonry and tailoring and girls = cooking, sowing and domestic tasks

How the government broke cultural ties - education

Hair was chopped, wore uniforms, can’t speak tribal language, spent 3 years with a white family’s and harshly disciplined

Prospects for NA graduates

India agency offices and schools, interpreters, retire to reservations

Who were Indian rights association

Social activist group, devoted to assimilation they didn’t have empathy for the NA culture and way of life

Where the IRA supportive of NA

Board of Indian commission (1869), working in education and Bureau of India affairs, critical of government

Conversion to Christianity - reservations

Christian missionaries on reservations (unsuccessful)

Training to be farmers - reservations

Land given was impossible to cultivate, disease wiped out the cattle, Navajo adapted quickly to farming

Ban on traditional practices - reservation

Still practice tribal customs, no buffalo to hunt - mascara rendering them extinct

Indian agents - reservations

Mostly corrupt and use government resources for there own benefit

After 1871 reservations were imposed

High levels of disease spreads, NA population halved

• 1880 = 240,000

• 1900 = 100,000

Restricted to reservations

Segregated from American society, can’t group together (as a resistance)

Dawes act - 1887

• Ended reservation system (some exceptions)

• Gave head of the family 160 acres of farmland and 320 acres of grazing land for 25 years in trust

• Allowed smaller areas of land for single people/orphans

• After 25 years, NA gained full citizenship

• Un-allotted land would be given to white settlers

What was the ghost dance

NA’s believed it would bring them a new world/land whiteout white settlers

What were agents worried about - NA action 1865-1900

They attempted to ban the dance however, they were unsuccessful

Legal challenges - NA action 1865-1900

Tribes proposed that their lands became a separate state (sequoyah), rejected by congress

Philanthropy- NA action 1865-1900

The IRA agreed that tribes should be assimilated and achieve equality, worked to make them abandon their traditional ways

Effects of WWII

• Migration of NA to towns and city’s 1930-1960, 4x moved to New York and Chicago

• Returning soldiers from war filled job market = don’t want NA anymore

Did WWII recognise NA

No recognition of their rights or to increase opportunities those who returned to reservations were early impoverished

What happened to new deal funding

New deal funding had been diverted to war, reservations were harsh, skills from wartime were unused on reservations

What did groups and government do to help after the war

• BIA attempted to stop suffering by starting job centres in major cities (1948)

• West 1950’s policy’s forced/pressured NA’s into urbanisation

Lone wolf V Hitchcock - 1903

• US government attempted to sell reservation land, braking the medicine lodge treaty

• The Kiowa chief began legal action, SC established right for US to revoke all treaties

Pueblo Indians: Bursum and Leavitt bills

• 1913, SC declared Pueblo Indians incapable of managing land, Bursum bill authorised taking of land

• Leavitt bill threatened to prohibit Pueblo Indians from performing there tribal dances

• Eventually blocked by the American Indian defence association

Burke act - 1906

• Speed up the progress of NA owning the land (faster than daws act)

• If competent and capable issued a ‘fee simple’ where they became citizens but had to pay taxes

• Able to sell land rather than held in trust

Indian citizenship act - 1924

• Vote given to NA whether they wanted it or not - 2/3 already had the vote

• Given to assimilate them further

• Many states enabled qualifications to stop NA’s from voting

Harrison V laveen - 1948

Helped as court favoured NA’s and stopped restrictions to vote, only one state not all

Marian report - what is it

Written by scientists who visited reservations, urging the government to make changes

Marian report - basic bits

• Closed off-reservation schools, improve on-reservation schools

• Improved medical facilities through funding

• Economic depression gave NA’s federal aid and improved quality of life

• Hover appointed Charles Rhodes to run the reform (the commissioner0

• Nothing addressing allowed land (disappointed reformers)

Cherokee nation V Hitchcock - 1902

Challenged right of congress to deny their rights to live on there lands and practice there traditions (failed)

The society of American Indians - 1911-1020’s

• 1911, 50 NA’s created SAI to campaign for education, healthcare

• Limited due to lack of funds and low level of support from other NA’s (due to American government spreading them apart)

• Many weren’t united with one view causing it to close in 20’s

Impact of WWII

• 100,000 left reservations = 25,000 served in armed forces and 75,000 urbanised

• Those on the reservations faced hardships

• NA soldiers forced back onto the reservations

• Due to how they were treated, NA’s formed the National Congress of American Indians to represent NA’s in the courts

Impact of WWI

• Thousands volunteered to help the war, 10,000 army and 2,000 army

• Used to give secretive messages through there different language

• Didn’t face discrimination so wanted rights when they returned

• Weren’t segregated so comradely between NA and WA

• Caused them to blend into American society

Urbanisation

Further impoverished and degraded the vast majority of NA’s, DID NOT remove tribal loyalty

• 60,000 left for city’s by 1960 to Chicago, Oakland

• NA women married WA so assimilation was easier

• Johnson and Nixon through affirmative action prohibited discrimination in federal jobs

• Didn’t work for many due to language barrier and loud environment, 40-70% returned to reservations

Indian claims commission - 1946-1978

Complete assimilation, end government responsibility, helped NA’s keep there land but didn’t listen to what they really wanted

• Didn’t help NA’s, progressed government wish

The bureau of Indian affairs

Development for NA’s, education, reservations. Had the power to take reservation and and give little compensation

• Started to help NA’s but used to further assimilate NA’s

Termination policy - 1953

Total assimilation, make NA’s subject to laws. Ended recognition of NA tribes and tribal treaty’s, saw them as self dependant citizens

• No more help from the government, expected to pay taxes and contribute to society

The Indian vocational training act - 1956

Established vocational skills/training for NA, funded by federal to those near reservations under the BIA

• Used to further assimilate NA into American working culture

The NCAI (national congress of American Indians) - NA action 1945-1968

• Represented 50 tribes, response to end of reservations had success in the 1960’s

• Worked to challenge discrimination in employment, education and braking of treaty’s

• First sign that tribes would join together to pursue justice, but many youths thought that NCAI was out of touch from NA

Did federal policy’s reflect American attitudes - 1945-1968

Yes, assimilation was pushed further, also became increasingly harsher with there policy’s

National Indian youth council - NA action 1945-1968

• Formed in New Mexico 1961, focused on fishing rights

• 1968 staged a ‘fish-in’ in the Columbia river, SC ruled against protecting there tribal fishing rights

Vine Deloris Jnr - NA action 1945-1968

Respected Sioux, served in marines, masters and law degree, a historian

• Testified to SC about NA civil rights, spokesperson for NA’s in Washington DC

The American Indian movement (AIM) - NA action 1945-1968

Took up stopping assimilation, most militant organisation

• Young NA’s patrolled streets moderating police movements, cased a decline in arrests and imprisonments

Dee brown - NA action 1945-1968

Not a NA, had NA friends who showed him he struggles of NA’s, wrote children’s books and history books around the NA struggle

• NA Protestant gained momentum and inspiration from other movements

Pursuit of return of ‘native sovereignty’ - NA action 1945-1968

Idea of power resting with tribes and lifestyle, sovereignty was a natural right taken and threatened by the ‘foreigners’

• Campaign for there fishing rights, part of there sovereignty, brought before the SC

President hoover

Republican, Laissez-faire attitude, supported NA’s

President Roosevelt

Urged for Indian reorganisation bill, appointed John collier

Senator Burton : wheeler

Head of senate committee on Indian affairs, modified the Wheeler-Howard act

Edgar Howard

Congressman, examined colliers bill

Gladys tantaquidgeon

• Mohegan tribe, studied anthropology and worked with northern tribes, a social worker in South Dakota

• Worked to preserve traditional techniques and ways of life

The NA new deal

Passed in 1934, based on Marian report

• Known as

  • Indian new deal

  • Wheeler-Howard act

  • Indian reorganisation act

John collier - who is he

• Commissioner of Indians (1933), before engaged in social work

• Formed AIDA (1923) to oppose the Bursum and Leavitt bills

John collier - self-determination

• Wanted self determination and return of communal lands - removed by congress, oversight of tribes stayed with BIA

• Tribal councils to have elected leaders and tribal courts, return lands to reservations for collective ownership - unworkable, no money to buy the land and not all NA’s wanted to return to reservations

New deal impact on NA culture

Involved with BIA, women given chance to work, can practice there traditional culture

New deal impact on NA land ownership

Allotment was ended

New deal, political impact

Political rights given to NA woman

New deal attitudes of federal government

Made the act ‘less radical’, thought the NA would assimilate further

Was the new deal a turning point

Yes

• Improved standards of living by, improving schools on reservations and closing of reservation schools

• Allowed to practice their culture and traditions

• Gave financial aid to reservations and improved medical facilities

No

• Only passed to further assimilate NA’s, no change in attitudes

Nixon - 1969-1974

• Appointed Louis R. Bruce Jnr as commissioner of Indian affaires 1969 (a Mohawk-souix)

• 1970 pledge to return NA land (1972 Yakama in Washington state)

• 1972 BIA ensures greater Indian leadership

• Emphasis on education (1972 education act)

Ford - 1974-1977

• Continued Nixions education act

• Indian self-determination act 1975, tribes could negotiate with BIA (influenced by Nixion)

• Indian education assistance act, NA parents have grater involvement in children’s education

Carter - 1977-1981

• Continued education act

• Native American religious freedom act 1978, right to practice traditions, recover scared objects and collect them from museums (opposition by archeologists and museums)

• Indian child welfare act 1978, protect rights of NA parents (stop social workers taking children away due to cultural misunderstandings)

Reagan - 1981-1989

Believed in ‘native capitalism’

What were the plights of the NA’s - forgotten American speak 1968

50,000 live in unsanitary conditions, 40% unemployed (10x greater than average), lowest literacy rates, 20 years lower life expectancy at 44

Money spent on the programme - forgotten American speach 1968

$1 ½ billion on all the project overall

• $3 million on college scholarships

• $112 million on health programmes

• $5.5 million to get talented teachers to work on-reservation school

Did government attitudes improve - forgotten American speach 1968

Government attitude greatly improved due to the removal of the termination policy and create a ‘partnership of self help’ through LBJ

AIMS aim - NA action 1968-1992

• Founded in Minneapolis 1968

• Inspired by the black panthers, a grass root organisation

• Monitored street patrols and whacked the police

• Benefited by Alcatraz (more publicity)

Background of Alcatraz - NA action 1968-1992

• Boarding schools and education for the removal of culture

• Destruction of Indian identity, termination policy 1953

• Moved from reservations to city slums

• Indian centre burnt down October 1969

• Was ex-NA land so many believed it should belong to them

Event of the occupation of Alcatraz - action of NA 1968-1992

• 400 NA’s travelled to Alcatraz on 80 fishing boats (November 1969), some attempted to swim

• Sausalito harbour boats wanted to help

• Unarmed and peaceful as it was done by students

• Richard Oakes was the leader

• Formed tribes of all Indians and put a list of demand to the government

Limited impact of Alcatraz - action of NA 1968-1992

• Little planning for after the occupation

• Many of the more radical people left before anything happened

• A lot of in-house fighting - Richard oaks daughter died causing him to leave

• Global interest slowed, eventually force of the island

Alcatraz had a significant impact - NA action 1968-1992

• Whitehouse got involved to try to negotiate, termination ended

• Lasted 1 ½ years, around 15,000 visited during occupation

• Large amounts of support (internationally)

• A move to stronger cultural identity for NA’s

• Formed DQU (1971), first NA university, absorbed into California state in 2000

Occupation of Mount Rushmore 1971 - NA Action

• Reassert ownership of Lakota Sioux burial grounds

• AIM establish campaign on Mount Rushmore, renamed crazy horse

• Were evicted, AIIM laid claim t black hills which is still contested

  • Didn’t achieve goals, but gained attention

Aim taking over the NIA 1972 - NA action

• Trail of broken treaties, 1000 NA travelled to raise awareness to NA plight, so took the BIA office peacefuly

• 20 point letter sent, violence broke out

  • Failure of AIM, immediate violence = tension

Occupation of wounded knee 1973 - NA action

• Site of 1890 massacre, a protest around financial dealings of president for reservations and treatment of NA

• Violence lasted 71 days (federal marshals sent in)

• Media coverage worldwide

• Negotiations and settlement, leaders were arrested but let out

  • Media attention but a compromise, many NA angry

Pine ridge reservation conflict 1975 - NA action

• 2 FBI agents and 2 protesters shot and killed

• Member of AIM founded guilty for murder

• Court of appeals later blamed federal authorities due to overreacting

  • Loses sympathy from white Americans

Political actions of NARF

• Founded 1970, defended NA rights and preserve culture

• Fought for right to vote in restricted states

• 1974 Oneida v Oneida and madison counties = allowed onieda tribe to sue for there land

• 1990 Native American graves protection and reparations act

Economic actions of NARF

• Right to hunt fish, recover lost land

• 1980 US v Sioux nation = compensation for the loss of black hills ($17.5 million + interest of 5%/year)

• 1982 Seminole tribe v buterworth = established gambling rights on reservation lands

Social actions of NARF

• Attempt to re-instate terminated tribes

• Proper burial of ancestral remains

• 1976 fisher v Montana = give NA families right to decide on all matters relating to adoption and foster care

• 1986 Charrier v bell = 30 states passed laws protecting Indian burial grounds and to treat them with respect

• 1970 = 800,000 NA

• 1990 = 1.7 million NA