psych - unit 2 flashcards 🫐

what is intelligence?

hypothetical construct that includes one’s capacity for learning, problem solving and applying knowledge and skills to adapt to unfamiliar situations.

what is the psychometric approach to intelligence?

involves quantifying intelligence through the use of standardised tests. These tests provide an intelligence quotient (IQ) score. Using factor analysis, researchers identify different aspects of ‘intelligence’ and group them into several distinct/specific abilities believed to contribute to an individual’s overall intelligence.

how did the stanford-binet scales develop over time?

Binet’s test contained questions for children of different age levels (assumed that intelligence increased with age. Binet gave a yielded mental age (MA), which shows the intellectual level at which a child is functioning. The test was brought to USA (1915) by Stanford University and modified to IQ.

How does the stanford-Binet scale work now?

provides an IQ score - found by comparing the child’s scores with the norms of their age. To calculate IQ, mental age is divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. Recent version is structured around fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visuospatial reasoning (3D shapes) and working memory

how does Wechsler’s intelligence tests work? (WISC - IV) and (WAIS = IV)

provides a general IQ score plus scores for four separate aspects of intelligence. Different tests for different age groups (adults and children). Used to identify particular learning disabilities (ie: reading disabilities). Scores are based on a comparison of a person’s answers with the answers of others in the same age group. Four scores provided: verbal, comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory and processing speed.

what are the 4 intelligence theories (excluding the psychometric approach)?

information processing theory of intelligence, Sternberg’s Triarchic theory, Gardner’s multiple Intelligences and Emotional intelligence (EQ) theory (Goleman)

What is the information processing theory of intelligence?

explains how the human mind works by comparing it to how a computer works rather than assessing its output (psychometric approach). Describes how we process information by examining speed of processing (how quickly one processes and responses to cognitive stimuli), knowledge base (amount of info stored in memory) and the ability to learn and apply mental strategies (ie: problem-solving strategies)

what is Sternberg’s Triarchic theory?

defined intelligence in terms of a person’s ability to succeed in life. Broken into three dimensions: analytical intelligence (academic; problem solving abilities; logical reasoning; ability to analyse), creative intelligence (innovation; imagination) and practical intelligence (applying knowledge based on experiences to ‘real world’ situations; ‘street smarts’)

what are Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory?

there are 8 different types of intelligence and two "possible” ones instead of one single form. 8 types are bodily-kinesthetic (manevouring body), interpersonal (understanding others emotions), verbal-linguistic (reading & understanding), logical-mathematical (numbers), naturalistic (understanding living things/nature and fauna), intrapersonal (understanding yourself), visual-spatial (visualising world in 3D) and musical (discerning sounds, pitch, rhythm, etc)

what is Goldeman’s emotional intelligence (EQ) theory?

the ability to percieve, use, understand and manage emotions in ourselves and others is a distinct type of intelligence. Broken into four domains: self-awareness (ability to recognise your emotions and how they affect thoughts and behaviour), self-management (being able to control impulses and manage emotional reactions), social awareness (the ability to understand and empathise with others) and relationship management (ability to maintain and build healthy relationships)

what are the issues in psychometric testing?

interpretation (does not capture individuals’ distinct skills/challenges), prediction (correlation between IQ and academic achievement does not imply causation), cultural and linguistic bias, flynn effect (average IQ scores rise by 3 per decade), standardisation, other factors (ie: anxiety, physical impairment, motivation, etc)

What are nature-genetic factors? (in relation to intelligence)

asserts that our level of intelligence is determined by our genes (heredity). For example, some genetic disorders can limit intelligence

what is heredity (nature-genetic factors) ? what is the heredityy coefficient for intelligence?

the process by which biological parents transmit physical and psychological traits to their offspring through their genetic material. 0.5-0.7 - 50-70% of variation in intelligence attributed to heredity

what are twin studies?

studies of monozygotic (MZ) twins (same fertilised egg; share all DNA) and dizygotic (DZ) twins (two separate eggs, share 50% DNA). If MZ twins show more similarity in IQ than DZ twins, indicates a genetic influence

what are family studies?

used to compare intellectual abilities of twins/siblings who have been reared together or apart

what are adoption studies?

allows researchers to study genetically unrelated individuals in the same environment and genetically raised individuals in separate environments

what is the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (1990)?

Recruited monozygotic (identical) wins who were separated early in life and reared apart. Found a heredity coefficient of 0.70 - genetic factors account for 70% of IQ variability. Found high positive correlations between identical twins (raised together and apart) for intelligence

What are nurture-genetic factors? (in relation to intelligence)

asserts that the potential for intelligence that we are born with can be maximised through exposure to a healthy environment. The development of an individual’s intellectual ability may be restricted or enhanced depending on factors that they are subjected to as a child (ie: healthy living environment vs extreme poverty, good vs limited educational opportunities, interaction with family vs little-no parent nstruction)

How do nature AND nurture factors interact in relation to intelligence?

intelligence is determined by a complex interaction of heredity (nature) and the environment (nurture), such as education, health and family. Heredity provides the limits to an individual’s intellectual potential, whereas environment provides the opportunity to reach the potential/maximum within the genetic range.

what is “normal” behaviour?

a behaviour that is accepted within the society and culture and is typical for the specific situation or context

what is “abnormal” behaviour?

behaviour that is considered unreasonable or anti-social by the majority in a given society; dysfunctional and socially-deviant behaviour that breaks societal norms. Changes over time

what are the 6 approaches to normality?

situational, sociocultural, historical, statistical, functional, medical

what is the situational approach to normality?

uses the situation in which a behaviour occurs to determine whether it’s normal. (ie: yelling in assembly vs in a football field)

what is the sociocultural approach to normality?

suggests what is normal behaviour based on cultural and societal cues (ie: norms and rules). For example, it is rude in Japan for a child to look a child in the eyes, whereas in Australia, a lack of eye contact is interpreted as shyness, disrespect and/or deceit.

what is the historical approach to normality?

suggests that normal behaviour is based on cues (and changes) from different periods in time. For example, fashion, language style, age you leave home, etc

what is the statistical approach to normality?

identifies normal behaviour by the frequency of the behaviour within a specified population. Data that deviates from average/normal range could be considered abnormal

what is the functional approach to normality?

suggests that behaviour is normal if it helps one live independently in an age-appropriate way. Behaviour is abnormal if it interferes with typical, everyday activities. May include psychological dysfunction (breakdown in the way one thinks, feels and behaves)

what is the medical approach to normality?

diagnosing someone with a psychological illness in the same way one may be diagnosed with a physical illness. ie: someone with depresion may need anti-depressant medication (is there something medically wrong?).

What is adaptive behaviour?

behaviour or skill developed as we age (and gain experience) to assist in our ability to relate to others, become independent and function daily. Allows individuals to adapt in a positive manner to situations; “everyday skills”.

what are the factors that contribute to adaptive behaviour?

personality predisposition, resilience, secure attachment, happy & secure home environment, financial security, parental interest in education

what are maladaptive behaviours?

negative coping mechanisms that harm the individual (or others) and/or interfere with daily functioning. Develop as a means of reducing anxiety and result in harm long-term. ie: procrastination, aggressive behaviour, alcohol/drug abuse, gambling, isolation

what are factors that influence maladaptive behaviours?

early childhood experiences (ie: insecure attachment as infant, inconsistent/harsh parenting, parents who model maladaptive behaviours, violence, neglect), poverty and unemployment, natural disasters

what are psychological disorders?

any condition characterised by cognitive and emotional disturbances, abnormal behaviours, impaired functioning or any combination of these.

what are the main categories of psychological disorders?

psychotic, mood, anxiety, personality

as a general, what are mood disorders?

characterised by distorted and inconsistent moods or emotional states that interfere with one’s ability to function normally

what are the two types of mood disorders we’ve learned about?

bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder

what is bipolar disorder? what are its symptoms?

periods of exaggerated euphoria, delusion, mania and depression. Symptoms include manic episodes, depressive episodes, mood swings, intense feelings, changes in behaviour & activity/energy levels

what is major depressive disorder? what are its symptoms?

persistent feelings of worthlessness, sadness and a lack of desire to engage in activities that were once pleasurable. Other symptoms include physical aches/pains, headaches, withdrawal, difficulty concentrating, inability to meet responsibilities

as a general, what are anxiety disorders?

share characteristics of excessive anxiety, fear and related behavioural disturbances. Frequency and intensity of feelings are out of proportion and interfere with everyday life

What are the two types of anxiety disorders we’ve learned about?

specific phobia and generalised anxiety disorder

what is specific phobia?

an intense and irrational fear of a specific situation of object. Provokes overwhelming and excessive fear or anxiety, causes significant distress or impairment and/or avoidance of the situation/object

what are the main types of specific phobia?

situational (ie: planes), injury (ie: needles), animal (ie: spiders), natural/environmental (ie: heights, storms)

what is generalised anxiety disorder? what is its symptoms?

a persistent worry that affects one’s day-to-day life on an ongoing basis. Symptoms include worrying excessively about everyday things, troubles with controlling worries, troubles relaxing and concentrating, restlessness

as a general, what are psychotic disorders?

characterised by the presence of psychotic symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, loss of contact with reality, etc

in relation to psychotic disorders, what are hallucinations?

false perception in the absence of visual stimuli - most commonly auditory (hearing voices) or visual (seeing imaginary things)

in relation to psychotic disorders, what are delusions?

fixed but false beliefs that are difficult to change back despute the presence of conflicting evidence. Aren’t shared by others from same cultural background.

what is the one psychotic disorder we’ve learnt about?

schizophrenia

what is schizophrenia? what are the types of symptoms? what do they include?

characterised by a withdrawal from reality, possible delusions and hallucinations, illogical thinking and disturbances in emotions, behaviours and/or thinking. Exists on a spectrum - symptoms can change over time. ‘positive’ (deivant) behaviours suggest that a person has lost touch with reality (ie: hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech). ‘negative’ (deficit) symptoms reflect the absence of normal characteristics (ie: reduced speech, apathy, reduced ability to show emotions). ‘cognitive’ symptoms include poor problem skills, decision-making skills, etc

as a general, what are personality disorders?

when an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours deviate from what is expected by the society and culture in which they live. Enduring, consistent and pervasive.

what are the clusters of personality disorders?

cluster A (odd or eccentric), cluster B (emotional, dramatic or erratic behaviours; i.e. antisocial disorder and BPD), cluster C (fearful and anxious behaviours)

what are the types of personality disorders we’ve learned about?

antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder

what is antisocial personality disorder? what are its symptoms?

persistent disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others. Symptoms include ignoring right and wrong, not accepting responsbility, lacking remorse and regret

what is borderline personality disorder? what are its symptoms?

extreme instability of moods and relationships with others. Symptoms include feeling of emptiness, paranoia or emotional detachment, abandonment anxiety, impulsive and uncontrollable behaviour, pattern of intense/challeging relationships.

what is the DSM-5-TR?

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edition), from American Psychiatric Association. Contains descriptions, symptoms and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders only. Specifies symptoms that must be present for diagnosis. English only; used in high-income nations

What is the ICD-11?

International classification of diseases (11th revision), from the World Health Organisation. Uses a coding system to classify ALL (physical, behavioural and mental) documented disorders, diseases, conditions and their subsets based on defining characteristics symptoms and causes. Avaliable in all widely spoken languages; used by WHO member countries

what is meant by “reliability in diagnosis”?

the lieklihood that two clincians would give the same diagnosis to the same patient by using the same diagnostic process. (i.e. psychologists independently assess a patient using DSM-5 criteria and both diagnose MDD = high inter-rater reliability)

what is meant by “validity in diagnosis” ?

The extent to which the diagnosis is appropriate/accurate, leading to treatment that leads to an improved state of health for the patient. Ensures diagnosis truly represents disorder and guides effective treatment. (i.e. diagnosis of schizophrenia should capture key elements such as delusions and hallucinations)

what happened in the 1st part of the study “on being sane in insane places” (1973)?

Rosenhan conducted a field study where 8 healthy people (pseudo-patients) gained admission to hospitals by claiming they had been hearing voices. Once admitted, they stopped stimulating any symptoms and behaved normally. Any normal behaviour was interpreted as pathological and an aspect of their “illness”. Diagnosis of schizophrenia was made without any clear symptoms.

what happened in the 2nd part of the study “on being sane in insane places” (1973)?

Staff of another hospital were falsely informed that pseudo-patients would attempt to be admitted over the next 3 months. Although there were none, 41 actual patients were judged as fake by at least one staff member.

what was the conclusion of the study “on being sane in insane places” (1973)?

psychiarists cannot accurately distinguish the sane fro the insane in psychiatric hospitals. Instead of being treated, ‘patients’ were labelled, depersonalised and humiliated.

what is the biopsychosocial model?

George Enel (19877) proposed that to truly understand and treat one’s illness, we must consider their condition in terms of biological, psychological and psychological influences.

as per the biopsychosocial model, what does ‘bio’ refer to?

psychologically based of determined influences such as individual genes and brain structure

as per the biopsychosocial model, what does ‘psycho’ refer to?

influences associated with mental processes (i.e. how we think, learn, stress and trauma/memories)

as per the biopsychosocial model, for does ‘social’ refer to?

factors such as relationships with others, societal roles and expectations, socio-cultural definitions of normality

in relation to the biopsychosocial model, what are risk factors?

factors that contribute to the likelihood of a person developing (or relapsing into) a mental disorder

how might genetics be a risk factor for psychological disorders?

Mental illness is heritable; people can inherit genes that make them susceptible to mental illness. A genetic mutation can cause proteins to be created that will function differently from the way they do typically. This places them at greater risk of having a disorder.

how might response to medication be a risk factor for psychological disorders?

Some individuals respond better than others to medication, depending, in part, on their genetic make-up and metabolism. Individual may need higher/lower doses or the medicine may be ineffective.

how might poor sleep be a risk factor for psychological disorders?

Chronic sleep problems are associated with mental health issues. Sleep deprivation or disorders affect the way individuals regulate their emotions. Patients who struggle to deal with negative emotions may be more susceptible to mental disorders.

how might substance abuse be a risk factor for psychological disorders?

Long-term substance abuse has been linked with several mental disorders (ie: alcoholism and depression). Other substances affect how neural messages are transmitted. Long term substance abuse can enhance the symptoms of a mental disorder.

as per biopsysocial model, what are examples of biological risk factors?

genetic, poor response to medication, poor sleep, substance abuse