AP Psych Unit 2: Cognition

perception

The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

bottom-up processing

Information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; (a type of inattentional blindness)

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect

your ability to attend to only one voice among many

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

gestalt

an organized whole. The emphasis on our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground perception

the perception of figures against a background

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

convergence

a cue to a nearby object’s distance; enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

relative clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away

texture gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; more visible texture signals a closer objects. Less texture signals distance.

law of proximity (gestalt)

elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

law of similarity (gestalt)

objects that are similar tend to be grouped together and perceived as a unit

linear perspective

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance

interposition

monocular cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one partially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

perceptual constancies

tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changing sensory info (size, shape, brightness, color)

apparent motion

the perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category; provides a quick

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

gambler’s fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently

sunk-cost fallacy

the tendency to stick to the original plan because one has invested time in it, even if developing a new plan could save time in the long run

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their intended functions, an impediment to problem solving

accommodation

changing our current understanding to incorporate new information

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neutral basis for learning and memory

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about object’s appearance and location in space.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skill, and experiences

multi-store model

explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

central executive

the part of working memory that direct attention and processing

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and word can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

structural processing

a type of shallow processing based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

encoding

the processing of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

phonemic processing

remembering the word by the way it sounds

semantic processing

encoding based on the meaning of information or how it relates to other concepts

mnemonic device

memory aids that help organize information for encoding

method of loci

a mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

categories

groups or classes of things

hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

massed practice

when information is encoded all at once

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

maintenance rehearsal

a system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

alzheimer’s disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on multiple-choice test

retrieval cues

stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

context-dependent memory

the theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experience that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory

the theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

metacognition

thinking about thinking

the forgetting curve

“Ebbinghause Curve” - Modeled that the course of forgetting is initially rapid and then levels off with time

encoding failure

failure to process information into long-term memory

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach