Psychology (Vocab Unit 1)

Cultural norms

An unwritten rule, standard, or shared expectation that guides how people think, act and interact within a specific group or society.

Confirmation bias

A psychological tendency to search for, interrupt, favor, and recall information that matches what you already believe.

Hindsight bias

Belief-after learning an outcome - that you predicted of could have foreseen.

Independent variable

A factor that researcher changes, controls, or manipulates in an experiment to test its effect on another factor.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that connects to both the independent variable and dependent varible.

Random Assignment

An experiment technique where researchers use procedures, like a coin flip or computer random number generates, to place study participants into different groups, such as a treatment group or control group.

Case Study

An in-depth, recal-world study of a single person group, company, or event.

Correlation

A statistical measure describing the size and direction of a relationship between two or more variables.

Positive correlation

Two different things move or change in the same direction.

Negative correlation

A relationship between two things where they go in opposite directions.

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines data and results from multiple separate scientific studies on the same topic.

Naturalistic observation

A research method where people or animals are watched in their real-world settings without any interference from the researcher.

Hypothesis

An educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomeno.

Falsifiable

A statement, hypothesis, or theory can be proven wrong by an observation, experiment, or physical test.

Operational definitions

Defining a word, concept, or abstract idea by explaining the exact steps, actions, or measurements used to observe and test it.

Replication

The act of making an exact copy, duplication, or repetition of something.

Central tendency

A single summary number that shows the middle or typical point of a data set.

Variation

A change or difference in how much, how often, or what something looks like.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a data set that fall at or below a specific score.

Mean

Mathematical averages, personal intentions, or unkind behavior.

Median

The middle value in a set of numbers when they are put in order from smallest to largest.

Mode

A way of doing something or a device setting.

Range

The space, distance, or limit between certain boundaries or limits.

Normal curve

A smooth, symmetrical graph that shows how data spreads out.

Positive skew

A set of data where most values bunch up on the left side (lower values), and a long tail stretches out to the right side (higher values).

Negative skew

A statistical term for data where most values cluster at the higher end (right side) of a graph, while a long tail stretches out toward the lower values (left side).

Bimodal distribution

A set of data or a graph that has two distinct peaks (modes).

Standard deviation

A number that shows how far data values are spread out from their average, or mean.

Regression toward the mean

A statistical concept where an unusually high or low measurement is followed by a future measurement that is closer to the average.

Sample

A small part or a single item that shows what the rest of a whole group or thing is like.

Population

The total number of living beings or items in a specific area.

Representative sample

A small part of a group that mirrors the key traits of the whole group.

Random sampling

A subset of individuals or items chosen from a larger population entirely by chance.

convenience sampling

A non-probability research method where you choose participants just because they are easy to reach.

Generalizing

Forming a broad rule, statement, or conclusion from a small set of specific facts, examples, or observations.

experimental group

The set of test subjects that receives the specific treatment, medication, or change being tested in a study.

Control group

A standard baseline in an experiment.

Placebo

A fake treatment, like a sugar pill or salt-water shot, that has no active medicine.

Placebo effect

When a person feels better after taking a fake treatment, like a sugar pill or saline shot, that has no real medicine.

Single-blind study

An experiment where the people taking part do not know if they get the real treatment or a fake one, but the researchers do.

Double-blind study

A research design where neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who receives the real treatment and who receives a placebo.

Experimental bias

Happens when a researcher's hopes or expectations unintentionally change how they design a study, treat participants, or measure results.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of people to give answers or show behaviors that look good to others.

Qualitative research/measures

A method for gathering and analyzing non-numerical data like words, images, or behaviors.

Likert scales

A popular rating system used in surveys to measure people's opinions, feelings, and attitudes.

Representation of participants

How a smaller group of study subjects or individuals mirrors a larger target population.

Peer review

A quality control process.

Replication

The act of making an exact copy, duplication, or repetition of something.

Scatterplot

A type of data graph that uses dots to show the relationship between two numeric variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number from -1 to 1 that shows how two things link together.

Effect sizes

A quantitative measure of the magnitude or strength of a difference between groups or the relationship between variables.

Statistical significance

When it is too unusual to be a coincidence.

Directionality problem

A limitation correlational research where a statistical link between two variables is found, but it is impossible to know whether variable X causes variable Y, or variable Y causes variable X.

Third variable problem

Happens when a link between two things looks like cause and effect, but an unmeasured third factor actually drives both.

Institutional review

An ethical and legal evaluation conducted by an institutional review board.

Informed consent

A person receives clear facts about a medical test, treatment, or research study before they agree to it.

Informed assent

A study or treatment when they are not of legal age or lack the legal capacity to give formal consent.

Protection from harm

The fundamental ethical, legal, and operational duty to keep individuals safe from physical, psychological, emotional, or structural injury

Confidentiality

The keeping of private information secret and safe.

Deception

The act of making someone believe something that is not true

Debriefing

A structured conversation or meeting held after an action, project, or mission.

Quantitative research/measures

A structured method for collecting and analyzing numerical data to test hypotheses, find patterns, and generalize results to larger populations.

Structured interviews

A data collection method where an interviewer asks every participant or job candidate the exact same predefined questions in the same order.

Overconfidence

Having too much trust in your own skills, knowledge, or luck.

Dependent variables

The item you measure in a test.