AP Biology Review

AP Biology flashcards covering the chemistry of life, cell biology, genetics, evolution, and ecology.

What type of bond exists between hydrogen and oxygen atoms within a single water molecule?

Covalent bond

What type of bond forms between different water molecules, giving water its unique properties?

Hydrogen bond

What properties of water allow it to climb up xylem in plants?

High surface tension and hydrogen bonds (capillary action)

What property of water helps to regulate and cool body temperature?

High specific heat

Why is water considered a good solvent?

Its polarity allows it to dissolve many substances

What type of reaction involves the removal of water to bind monomers together?

Dehydration synthesis

What type of reaction involves the addition of water to break bonded molecules?

Hydrolysis

What is the primary function of carbohydrates?

To store energy

What are the building blocks (monomers) of proteins?

Amino acids

What chemical groups are found in an amino acid?

An amino group (N), a carboxylic group (C), and an R group

What type of bond is responsible for the alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet structures in proteins?

Hydrogen bonds

What intermolecular forces drive the tertiary structure folding of a protein?

Hydrophilic/phobic interactions between R-groups

What are the three components of a nucleotide?

Phosphate (5'), Sugar (3'), and a Nucleotide base

Which nucleotide bases are purines (have two rings)?

Adenine and Guanine

Which nucleotide bases are pyrimidines (have one ring)?

Thymine, Uracil, and Cytosine

How many hydrogen bonds are between Adenine and Thymine?

Two hydrogen bonds

How many hydrogen bonds are between Guanine and Cytosine?

Three hydrogen bonds

What is the main function of ribosomes?

Protein synthesis

What organelle modifies and packages proteins?

Golgi complex

What is the function of lysosomes?

To break down waste and facilitate apoptosis

What is the function of mitochondria?

ATP production

What is the function of chloroplasts?

Photosynthesis

What two things do all cell membranes have in common?

Phospholipid Bilayer; Hydrophilic Head; Hydrophobic Tail

What type of molecules can easily cross the plasma membrane?

Small hydrophobic molecules (O2, CO2, N2) and small polar molecules (like water)

What is the difference between passive and active transport?

Passive transport requires no energy, while active transport requires energy

How do aquaporins facilitate transport across a membrane?

Allow water molecules to quickly cross membrane

What is the relative solute concentration in a hypertonic solution?

High solute, low water

Does a hypotonic solution have high or low water concentration?

High water, low solute

What term describes a solution with equal solute and water concentrations?

Isotonic

What site of an enzyme binds to a substrate?

Active site

What is competitive inhibition?

When another molecule competes with the substrate to bind to the active site

What is induced fit?

When the enzyme changes shape to better fit a substrate

What site of an enzyme binds to a noncompetitive inhibitor?

Allosteric site

Is an endergonic reaction energy-releasing or energy-absorbing?

Energy-absorbing; products have more energy than reactants

Is an exergonic reaction energy-releasing or energy-absorbing?

Energy-releasing; products have less energy than reactants

What are the inputs of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

Light energy and Water

What are the outputs of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

ATP, NADPH, Oxygen

In light-dependent reactions, what molecule is responsible for absorbing light energy?

Chlorophyll

What is the role of photolysis in photosynthesis?

Splits water into protons, electrons, and oxygen

What is the purpose of the Calvin Cycle?

To produce glucose from CO2, ATP, and NADPH

What enzyme is responsible for carbon fixation in the first step of the Calvin cycle?

Rubisco

What is the overall equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?

Cytosol

What is the net ATP production in glycolysis?

2 ATP (2 ATP -> 4 ATP)

Where does the Oxidation of Pyruvate occur?

Mitochondria

What is the final product of the Oxidation of Pyruvate?

Acetyl group and CO2

Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?

Mitochondrial Matrix

What are the products of the Krebs Cycle?

CO2, NADH, FADH2, and ATP

Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place?

Inner mitochondrial membrane

What is the role of NADH and FADH2 in oxidative phosphorylation?

Bring electrons to the ETC

How many ATP molecules does 1 NADH produce in oxidative phosphorylation?

3 ATP

How many ATP molecules does 1 FADH2 produce in oxidative phosphorylation?

2 ATP

What is regenerated from NADH during fermentation?

NAD+

What is taxis in cell communication?

Directed movement in response to a stimulus

What's the difference between paracrine and endocrine signaling?

Paracrine is short distance signaling; Endocrine is long distance signaling via hormones

What is a ligand?

Signaling molecule

What are kinases?

Enzymes that transfer phosphate groups to continue signaling

How do ligand-gated ion channels function?

They open or close ion channels in response to ligand binding

When activated by a ligand, what does a catalytic receptor do?

Activates an enzyme active site on the internal side of the membrane

What type of receptor leads to secondary messengers including cAMP?

G-protein linked receptor

Give an example of positive feedback.

Childbirth contractions

What regulates the cell cycle?

Cyclin, CDKs and checkpoints

What is the function of checkpoints in the cell cycle?

To stop or repair DNA damage between phases of cell cycle

What happens if DNA damage cannot be repaired at a cell cycle checkpoint?

Apoptosis can occur

What is the role of cyclins and CDKs complexes in the cell cycle?

Allow cell cycle to continue

What happens to cyclin concentrations during the cell cycle?

Cyclins fluctuate

What are genes called that are mutated in cancer cells?

ONCOGENES

What are healthy genes called that can become oncogenes?

proto-oncogenes

What is the difference between haploid and diploid cells?

Haploid (n) has one set of chromosomes, while diploid (2n) has two sets

What is the phenotypic ratio of a monohybrid cross?

3:1

What is the phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross?

9:3:3:1

Name three of Mendel's Laws.

Segregation; Dominance; Independent assortment

If genes have a recombination frequency of 15%, how many units apart are they on the chromosome?

15 units

If a gene is X-linked recessive, who will express the trait?

Men

What happens during Meiosis I to create haploid cells?

Each resulting cell is haploid but with two sister chromatids

How many gametes result from spermatogenesis?

4 sperm

What does nondisjunction lead to?

Wrong number of chromosomes

What sugar is found in DNA?

Deoxyribose

Which nucleotide bases are purines in DNA?

Adenine and Guanine

Which nucleotide bases are pyrimidines in DNA?

Thymine and Cytosine

What sugar is found in RNA?

Ribose

Which nucleotide base replaces Thymine in RNA?

Uracil

During DNA replication, in what direction does DNA polymerase add nucleotides to the leading strand?

3' end

What enzyme connects Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand?

Ligase

During transcription, in which direction does RNA polymerase build the RNA strand?

5' to 3'

What is removed during RNA processing?

Introns

What is added to the 5' end of mRNA during RNA processing?

GTP cap

What is added to the 3' end of mRNA during RNA processing?

PolyA tail

What brings the matching amino acid to add to the polypeptide?

tRNA

What is an operon?

A part of a gene that includes the structural genes, the promoter, the operator, and the regulatory gene

When codon codes for the same amino acid it should, what mutation is responsible?

Silent: mutation

What is recombinant DNA?

Combining DNA from different sources

In natural selection, what does VIDA stand for?

Variation; Inheritance; Differential Survival and Reproduction; Adaptation

In which type of selection is one end of the phenotype range favored?

Directional selection

In which type of selection is the middle phenotype favored?

Stabilizing selection

In which type of selection are the extreme phenotypes favored?

Disruptive selection

What leads to a random loss of alleles in a population?

Genetic drift

What is the bottleneck effect?

Size of population greatly reduced often due to natural disasters

What are the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

Large population; Random mating; No gene flow; No selection; No mutations

What is allopatric speciation?

Population becomes geographically separated and the two groups diverge into new species