NSCI 2101 Exam 4

Not very good for 40/41 bcus i ran out of time and ai generated them, also no labs, good luck with the final!

Learning

Encoding of new information

Memory Storage

Function of memory which is mostly distributed across cortical areas

Memory Consolidation

Process of converting short - term memory into long - term memory

Long Term Potentiation

Strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated neuron activation

Declarative Memory

Explicit memories , including episodic , semantic , autobiographical , and spatial memories

Episodic Memory

Memories of personal experiences

Semantic Memory

Memories of words , concepts , and numbers

Spatial Memory

Memories of locations

Nondeclarative Memory

Implicit memory , including conditioned and procedural memories

Procedural Memory

Memory of motor plans and skills

Hippocampus

Cortical region responsible for encoding specific locations in individual neurons

Entorhinal Cortex

Cortical region responsible for encoding spatial geometry in individual neurons

Amygdala

Cortical region responsible for the formation of emotional memories

Medial Temporal Lobe

Cortical region responsible for formation of declarative and emotional memory

Basal Ganglia Loops

Brain pathway responsible for the formation of procedural memories

Frontal Lobe

Cortical region responsible for the storage of declarative memories

Cerebellum

Brainstem region responsible for the storage of procedural memories

Motor Cortex

Cortical region responsible for the storage of procedural memories

Papez Circuit

Cortical pathway responsible for the storage of declarative memories

Reward Circuits

Brain circuits that encourage rewarding stimuli

Brain Stimulation Reward

Phenomena of pleasure as a result of direct stimulation of the septal area , ventral tegmental area , prefrontal cortex , and striatum

Positive Reinforcement

Feature of behavior dependent on reward circuits

Dopaminergic Neurons

Neurons facilitating the reward system with a majority of cell bodies in the midbrain

Nigrostriatal Pathway

Pathway of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the caudate nucleus and putamen

Mesolimbic Pathway

Pathway of dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens

Mesocortical Pathway

Pathway of dopaminergic neurons from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex

Dopamine Agonists

Substances that stimulate strong dopamine signals in the brain

Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors

Substances that increase dopamine availability and transmission at the synapse

Dopaminergic Drugs

Substances that rapidly alter gene expression and neurotransmission in the reward system

Dopamine Sensitization

Increased threshold potential in dopaminergic neurons exposed to dopaminergic drugs

Striatal Neuron Alteration

Increased density in the synapses of striatal neurons exposed to dopaminergic drugs

Reticular Formation

Mesh of axons and dendrites in the midbrain , pons and medulla that connects with many parts of the nervous system

Reticular Formation Neurons

Neurons with large and highly branched dendrites

Reticular Formation Motor Input

Efferent information sent from the premotor cortex , motor cortex , and medulla to the reticular formation in the lower pons and medulla

Accompanying Movements

Subconscious movements initiated by the reticular formation which maintain balance during conscious movement

Reticular Formation Somatosensory Input

Afferent information sent to the reticular formation in the lower pons and medulla

Reticulospinal Tract

Tract that sends information to the ventral spinal cord and cranial nerve motor nuclei

Reticular Motor Projections

Bilateral projections to motor neurons and interneurons

Breathing Regulation

Function of reticular formation neurons synapsing in the cervical spinal cord

Blood Pressure Regulation

Function of reticular formation neurons synapsing in the brainstem and autonomic preganglionic neurons in the spinal cord .

Sensory Filtering

Reduction of irrelevant touch , auditory stimuli , and visual stimuli via reticulo - thalamic neurons

Vomit Reflex

Process facilitated by the reticular formation initiated in medulla which sends efferents to the nuclei of the vagus nerve and solitary tract , creating a response in the gastrointestinal system

Paramedian Pontine Reticular Formation

Region in the pons projecting to the ipsilateral abducens nerve and contralateral oculomotor nerve for horizontal eye movements

Sleep and Wakefulness

Active processes controlled by the reticular formation in the midbrain and upper pons

Wakefulness neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine , histamine , norepinephrine , orexin , and serotonin

Locus Coeruleus

Region of the reticular formation which produces norepinephrine

Raphe Nucleus

Region of the reticular formation which produces serotonin

Tuberomammillary Nucleus

Region of the hypothalamus which produces histamine

Reticular Activating System

System that sends wakefulness neurotransmitters from the reticular formation to the thalamus and the cerebral cortex

Circadian Rhythm

Sleep - wake cycle of 24 hours in nature and 25 hours in isolation , which begins at 3 months old

Melatonin

Hormone which peaks in the dark or the rest period of the circadian rhythm and can be used as a treatment for jet lag

Cortisol

Hormone which peaks in the light or the waking period of the circadian rhythm

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Region of the hypothalamus that controls the heartbeat and synchronizes the circadian rhythm with the natural light cycle

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Circuitry

Region of the hypothalamus that medially receives input from retinal ganglion cells and laterally sends projects to the pineal gland , preoptic area , and reticular formation

Paraventricular Nucleus

Region of the thalamus that send information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to to the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral spinal cord

Superior Cervical Ganglia

Sympathetic ganglia that sends information from the intermediolateral nucleus to the pineal gland for melatonin production

Non - REM Sleep Stages

The first 4 stages of sleep , characterized by cortical activity decreasing in frequency and increasing in amplitude for about an hour

Effects of Non - REM Sleep

Little dreaming , few eye movements , muscle activity , slow breathing , and lower blood pressure

REM Sleep

The 5th stage of sleep , characterized by wake - like cortical activity for about 10 minutes

Effects of REM Sleep

Frequent dreaming , increased eye movements , low muscle activity , and higher blood pressure

Cholinergic Reticular Formation Neurons

Neurons that activate GABAergic thalamic neurons , which inhibit thalamocortical axons during REM sleep

Pontine Reticulospinal Neurons

Neurons that inhibit spinal motor neurons during REM sleep

Pontine Reticular Formation

Brain region that projects to the superior colliculus to create rapid eye movements during REM sleep

Extracellular Brain Space

Area of the brain which grows during sleep and reduces due to noradrenaline during the day

Insomnia

Sleep disorder that can lead to fatigue , irritability , impaired learning and decision - making , risk of migraines and seizures , and death

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder sometimes associated with low orexin and hypocretin which leads to disabling sleepiness in abnormal situations

Sleepwalking

Sleep disorder seen more often in children which occurs in the earliest stages of sleep

Night Terrors

Sleep disorder seen more often in children involving episodes of intense fear which occur during non - REM sleep

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder involving interruption or breathing during sleep , which leads to decreased oxygen and less restful sleep

REM Behavioral Disorder

Sleep disorder associated with Parkinson's in which spinal motor neurons are not inhibited during REM sleep

Restless Leg Syndrome

Sleep disorder sometimes associated with anemia which leads to pain or tingling in legs during non - REM sleep

Cerebral Cortex

Phylogenetically new brain region with more than 15 billion neurons

Neocortex

Outer cortex consisting of 6 layers

Allocortex

Inner cortex consisting of the piriform cortex , olfactory tubercle , anterior olfactory nucleus , hippocampus , and olfactory bulb

Grey Matter

Location of neuron cell bodies in the cortex

White Matter

Location of axons in the cortex

Pyramidal Neurons

Large and abundant neurons with long dendrites that leave the cortex

Granule Cells

Small star - shaped neurons in the cortex

Layer I

Outermost molecular layer of the cortex that contains axons , dendrites , and horizontal cells and receives contralateral information

Layer II

External granule cell layer of the cortex that receives information from other cortical layers , sends and receives contralateral information , and is especially large in association areas

Layer III

External pyramidal cell layer of the cortex that sends axons to other cortical layers , sends and receives contralateral information , and is especially large in association areas

Layer IV

Internal granule cell layer of the cortex that receives afferent information from the thalamus and is especially large in the primary somatosensory cortex

Layer V

Internal pyramidal cell layer of the cortex that sends efferent information to subcortical regions and is especially large in the primary motor cortex

Layer VI

Innermost multiform layer of the cortex with a variety of cell types that is not well understood

Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure

White matter bundles connecting the cerebral hemispheres

Uncinate Fasciculus

White matter bundles connecting the frontal and temporal lobes

Cingulum Bundle and Longitudinal Fasciculi

White matter bundles connecting the frontal , temporal , and parietal lobes

Internal Capsule

White matter bundles connecting cortex with the thalamus , subthalamic nucleus , and brainstem

Brodmann's Areas

52 anatomical areas of the cerebral cortex

Left Hemisphere

Cerebral hemisphere associated with dominance in speech , writing , and calculations

Right Hemisphere

Cerebral hemisphere associated with dominance in music , drawing , and spatial perception

Frontal Lobe

Cerebral lobe containing the prefrontal and motor cortex which receive information from the mediodorsal , ventroanterior , and ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus

Parietal Lobe

Cerebral lobe containing the somatosensory cortex which receives information from the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus

Temporal Lobe

Cerebral lobe containing the auditory cortex which receives information from the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

Limbic Lobe

Cerebral lobe containing the hippocampus , amygdala , parahippocampal gyrus , and cingulate gyrus , which receive information from the anterior nuclei of the thalamus

Occipital Lobe

Cerebral lobe containing the visual cortex which receives information from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

CT Scan Procedure

Structural imaging where the patient is placed in a donut shaped x - ray machine that quickly rotates their body , sometimes injected with dye to examine blood supply

CT Scan Uses

Structural imaging that is used for strokes , headaches , abdominal pain , bleeding , neurosurgery , and animal research

CT Scan Pros

Structural imaging that is non - invasive , easier for claustrophobic patients , non - distorted , and quick

CT Scan Cons

Structural imaging that has low resolution and involves radiation exposure