Unit 4: Learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

operant behavior

the network of factors and events involved in the behavior of human and non-human animals

law of effect

The principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed- interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight learning

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

observational learning

learning by observing others (also called social learning).

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

antisocial behavior

behavior that either damages interpersonal relationships or is culturally undesirable

Preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

counter conditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

taste aversion

(one-trial conditioning) a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

primary reinforcers

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcers

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

vicarious learning

learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action