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hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act.
sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)
random sample
method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected
representative sample
A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
double-blind study
An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo
Placebo
something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
dependent variable
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
descriptive statistics
statistics that summarize the data collected in a study
Histogram
A graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.
Mode
The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
skewed distribution
When the results are not symmetrical (appears to favor one side over the other)
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
statistical significance
how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
