final lecture test 18-29

A lymphatic "nodule" definition and list common lymphatic nodules

A lymphatic nodule is a small collection of lymphatic tissue that helps fight infection. Common lymphatic nodules include the tonsils, Peyer's patches, and appendix.

List all of the functions of the spleen

Functions of the spleen: filters blood, removes old red blood cells and platelets, stores platelets, stores blood, destroys bacteria and pathogens, produces lymphocytes, initiates immune responses, and recycles iron from hemoglobin.

Which tonsils are located in the posterior nasal cavity?

Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)

The thymus plays an important role in the development of (the)

T lymphocytes (T cells)

A "B Cell" responds to the initial antigen challenge immediately including a list of changes / activities. Please list all of them.

When a B cell first encounters an antigen, it becomes activated, undergoes mitosis (clonal expansion), differentiates into plasma cells and memory B cells, and begins producing antibodies.

Key features / functions of adaptive immune system

Adaptive immunity is specific, has memory, recognizes specific antigens, involves B cells and T cells, and responds more rapidly after repeated exposure.

The composition of lymph is similar to which liquid or solution?

Interstitial (tissue) fluid

The spleen’s anatomical location in abdominal cavity and role in immune system

The spleen is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It filters blood, removes damaged blood cells, stores platelets, and helps fight infection.

The lymphatic system returns fluid from tissue spaces to ______ system.

Cardiovascular (venous circulatory) system

The functions of the spleen include

Filters blood, removes worn-out RBCs, stores platelets, recycles iron, produces lymphocytes, and initiates immune responses.

T-lymphocytes become ___ when exposed to tissue transplants from non-relatives.

Sensitized (activated) T lymphocytes

Functions of the "immune (or lymphatic) system"

Defends against pathogens, returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream, absorbs dietary fats, produces immune cells, and filters lymph and blood.

Definition of passive immunity

Passive immunity is protection received from another person or source rather than produced by your own immune system.

The type of resistance that develops as a result of developing a disease is

Naturally acquired active immunity

Two means of acquiring active immunity are vaccination and

Infection (exposure to the disease organism)

Antibodies combine with molecules which are called

Antigens

How are cells responsible for immunity? List all

Cells responsible for immunity include B lymphocytes, helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, regulatory (suppressor) T cells, memory T cells, plasma cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.

Which of the following is thought to be a possible cause of autoimmune disease? List some

Possible causes include genetic factors, viral infections, bacterial infections, environmental triggers, and failure of immune self-tolerance.

The (gland) organ which determines the ability to provide cellular immunity, very early in life, is the

Thymus

from the thymus is believed to give rise to sensitized lymphocytes and eventual
cellular immunity.

Thymosin

The AIDS virus infects

Helper T cells (CD4⁺ T lymphocytes)

List the functions of the spleen in circulation system and immune system

Circulatory functions: filters blood, stores platelets and blood, removes old RBCs, recycles iron. Immune functions: produces lymphocytes, destroys pathogens, and initiates immune responses.

Nonspecific body defenses include ____ (some or all of the following?)
1. Phagocytosis
2. T Cells
3. Plasma cells

Phagocytosis (T cells and plasma cells are specific defenses, not nonspecific.)

How do helper T cells’ function in immune response

Helper T cells activate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages by releasing cytokines that coordinate the immune response.

When B-cells are activated, what changes or activities they will have

Activated B cells divide rapidly, become plasma cells that secrete antibodies, and form memory B cells for long-term immunity.

Active immunity is acquired by either infection with the live organism or by

Vaccination

What is Interferon and its function

Interferons are proteins released by virus-infected cells that help prevent viral replication and activate immune cells

The term "antigenic" means

Capable of producing an immune response (able to stimulate antibody production).

Plasma cells are derived from

Activated B lymphocytes (B cells)

The primary function of the lymphatic system is

To return excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream and help defend the body against disease.

Anatomically, lymph vessels resemble

Veins

List functions of Lymph nodes

Filter lymph, remove pathogens, activate lymphocytes, produce immune responses, and remove debris.

Lymphocytes are located in each of the following tissues or organs

Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, Peyer's patches, appendix, and circulating blood.

The body’s nonspecific defenses include all of the following,

Skin, mucous membranes, phagocytosis, inflammation, fever, complement proteins, interferons, and natural killer (NK) cells.

The cells responsible for humoral immunity are the

B cells

Suppressor T cells act to

Suppress or slow the immune response after an infection has been controlled

B cells are primarily activated by the action of

Helper T cells

The following are steps in the cell-mediated immune response.
1. several cycles of mitosis occur
2. antigen is engulfed and presented by a macrophage
3. cytotoxic T cells migrate to focus of infection
4. undifferentiated T cells with specific receptors recognize the antigen
5. T cells differentiate into cytotoxic T cells and T memory cells
6. cytotoxic T cells release perforin and/or lymphotoxin.
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The correct sequence for these steps is

Correct sequence: 2 → 4 → 1 → 5 → 3 → 6

2. Antigen is engulfed and presented by a macrophage → 4. Undifferentiated T cells recognize the antigen → 1. T cells undergo mitosis → 5. Differentiate into cytotoxic and memory T cells → 3. Cytotoxic T cells migrate to the infection → 6. Cytotoxic T cells release perforin and lymphotoxin

In humans, the lungs are caused to inflate by events related to

The lungs inflate because the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, increasing thoracic volume and lowering intrapulmonary pressure.

The concentration of bicarbonate ions would be greater in Artery or Vein

Veins

In chronic or long term cigarette smokers have negative outcome, list few

Long-term smoking can cause chronic bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, COPD, reduced lung function, and decreased oxygen exchange.

The C-shaped rings of cartilage of the trachea not only prevent the trachea from collapsing but also aid in the process of

The C-shaped cartilage rings help keep the trachea open and allow the esophagus to expand during swallowing.

Which of the following represents the correct sequence of structures
over which air passes in the respiratory tract

Nose → Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli

If atmospheric pressure is 745 mm Hg and the air is 20% O2, what is the partial pressure of oxygen

149 mmHg (745 × 0.20 = 149 mmHg).

The amount of oxygen released from oxyhemoglobin increases related to what kind of changes of blood concentration of CO2, or Acids, or body temperature?

Oxygen is released more easily when CO₂ increases, acidity (H⁺) increases, and body temperature increases

The vocal cords --- anatomical location and function

The vocal cords are located in the larynx and produce sound by vibrating as air passes through them.

The rate of respiration is increased when? changes of CO2, lactic acid, or oxygen in the blood

Respiration increases when CO₂ levels rise, blood pH decreases (more acid/lactic acid), or oxygen levels fall.

When oxygen diffuses into the blood, which chemical bond it will forms with hemoglobin?

Oxygen forms a reversible bond with the iron (Fe²⁺) in hemoglobin, forming oxyhemoglobin.

The factors which facilitate expiration in breathing are

Expiration is helped by relaxation of the diaphragm and external intercostals, elastic recoil of the lungs, and contraction of internal intercostals and abdominal muscles during forced expiration

Foreign particles entering the respiratory system may

Foreign particles may be trapped in mucus, moved by cilia, coughed out, or destroyed by alveolar macrophages

All of the following statements relate to the breathing process during inspiration and expiration. Which of them is not true

Any statement saying inspiration occurs because intrapulmonary pressure increases is NOT true. During inspiration, pressure decreases.

Which of the following listed substances is greatest as a result of cellular respiration

Carbon dioxide

About two-third of the CO2 produced by the cells travels in the blood as

Bicarbonate ions

If blood samples were taken from right atrium, right ventricle and pulmonary artery, and analyzed for oxygen concentration

The oxygen concentration is approximately the same in the right atrium, right ventricle, and pulmonary artery because they all carry deoxygenated blood.

After puberty, girls tend to have higher pitched voices than boys because (the)

Girls have higher-pitched voices because their larynx is smaller and their vocal cords are shorter and thinner

The partial pressure of oxygen is highest in the: arteries, veins, atmosphere, tissue, lung

Atmosphere

Which of the following could best be termed "cellular respiration"

The use of oxygen by cells to produce ATP and carbon dioxide

Lung collapse occurs when air enters the pleural cavity because

Air in the pleural cavity eliminates the negative intrapleural pressure, causing the lung to collapse

If an individual has a vital capacity of 5750 cc, an inspiratory reserve of 3220 cc and an expiratory reserve of 1450 cc, what is his tidal volume

1,080 cc (mL) (5750 − 3220 − 1450 = 1080).

Breathing rate is most likely to increase if the blood concentration of

Carbon dioxide

CO2 easily diffuses into the plasma of the blood because

CO₂ diffuses easily because it is highly soluble in plasma

The damaging effect of carbon monoxide is due to the fact that

Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin much more strongly than oxygen, preventing oxygen transport.

An acute, or chronic inflammation of the bronchial tree caused by bacterial infection or irritants, is known as

Bronchitis

When the diaphragm and chest elevating muscles contract

Thoracic volume increases and air flows into the lungs

In which of the following structures might one expect inhaled air to have the HIGHEST carbon dioxide content

Alveoli

The transfer of oxygen across cell membranes occurs

Oxygen crosses cell membranes by simple diffusion

The space between the lungs, occupied by the trachea, esophagus and great vessels, is called the

Mediastinum

Boyle's law states that

Boyle's Law: Pressure and volume are inversely related. As volume increases, pressure decreases, and vice versa.

You cannot inhale when you attempt to swallow because

During swallowing, the epiglottis closes over the larynx, preventing air from entering the airway

The walls of the alveoli are composed of

Simple squamous epithelium (Type I alveolar cells

The center for control of normal respiration is located in the

Medulla oblongata

The trachea
1. is located in the mediastinum.
2. is reinforced by 15 to 20 circular cartilages.
3. is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
Which one(s) are right?

Statements 1 and 3 are correct. The trachea is in the mediastinum and is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. Statement 2 is incorrect because the trachea is reinforced by 16–20 C-shaped cartilage rings, not 15–20 circular rings.

If an incision has to be made in the small intestine to remove an obstruction, the first layer of tissue to be cut into is the

Visceral peritoneum

lists digestive organs in the order that food matter passes through them

Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Duodenum → Jejunum → Ileum → Cecum → Ascending colon → Transverse colon → Descending colon → Sigmoid colon → Rectum → Anal canal → Anus

Which organ fits the following description--inferior to the diaphragm, stomach and liver, and parallel to the pancreas

Spleen

All segments of the gastrointestinal tract secrete:

Mucus

The function(s) of the large intestine is/are

Absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces, houses bacteria that produce vitamins (K and B vitamins), and eliminates waste

Secretin (is) function

Stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate-rich fluid and inhibits gastric secretion.

The Sympathetic nervous system generally --? -- digestive tract activity, parasympathetic
neurons usually --? -- it

Sympathetic nervous system inhibits digestive activity; parasympathetic nervous system stimulates it.

The pancreas contains two types of glands, ninety-nine percent of its cells produce --? --
secretions. These pass into a duct that empties into the --?

Exocrine secretions

Which takes place in the mouth

Chewing (mastication), swallowing begins, and carbohydrate digestion by salivary amylase.

Which statement about stomach is incorrect? From location, function, sphincters, enzymes, cell types,etc

Incorrect statement: The stomach is the primary site of nutrient absorption. (Most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine

The stomach performs functions

Stores food, mixes food into chyme, begins protein digestion, secretes acid and enzymes, kills bacteria, and produces intrinsic factor.

Function of Hydrochloric acid in the stomach

Activates pepsin, kills microorganisms, denatures proteins, and provides an acidic environment for digestion.

A villus consists of

A villus contains blood capillaries, a lacteal (lymphatic capillary), connective tissue, and is covered by simple columnar epithelium with microvilli.

The sphincter of Odd

Controls the flow of bile and pancreatic juice into the duodenum.

In their passage through the human digestive tract, proteins are first acted upon by enzymes in the:

Stomach (by pepsin).

An organ of the digestive system that assumes a role in phagocytosis, manufacturing plasma proteins, detoxification and interconversion of nutrients is the

Liver

Sympathetic innervation to the small intestine

Inhibits intestinal movement and secretions; causes vasoconstriction.

The esophagus

Muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach; moves food by peristalsis.

The greater omentum is

A large fold of peritoneum hanging from the greater curvature of the stomach over the intestines.

The middle portion of the small intestine is the

Jejunum

The pylorus is:

The lower portion of the stomach that empties into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter.

Digestive enzymes act specifically on the

Specific substrates (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, or nucleic acids).

During swallowing, the major factor keeping food from entering the larynx and trachea is:

The epiglottis closes over the larynx during swallowing.

Gastrin from the stomach functions to:

Stimulates gastric acid secretion, gastric motility, and stomach growth.

The intestinal microvilli are:

Microscopic projections that greatly increase the absorptive surface area of the small intestine.

Cholecystokinin has what effect in the human body?

Stimulates gallbladder contraction, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and relaxes the hepatopancreatic sphincter.

Bile

Produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats, and contains no digestive enzymes.

The ileum joins the colon at the:

Ileocecal valve