Logical Fallacies and Their History

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering the definition and history of logical fallacies, including the 15 common types and historical texts mentioned in the transcript.

Logical fallacy

An argument that can be disproven through reasoning; it must be logically flawed or deceptive in some way.

Slippery slope fallacy

A position that claims that very specific consequences will follow an action, typically with no supporting evidence for the chain of events.

Ex. If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold. 

this one is only incorrect not logically flawed

Ex. If you go outside without a coat, you’ll catch a cold and infect the rest of the family. Then your sister will have to miss class and she’ll get a bad grade and fail her course. 

This illustrates the slippery slope fallacy by suggesting an exaggerated series of negative outcomes from a minor action without sufficient evidence.

Nyāya-Sūtras

The foundational text of the Nyāya school of Hindu philosophy, written between the $6^{th}$ century BCE and the $2^{nd}$ century CE, which identified $5$ distinct ways an argument could be logically flawed.

Akṣapāda Gautama

The philosopher to whom the Nyāya-Sūtras is attributed.

Sophistical Refutations

The work by Greek philosopher Aristotle in which he identified $13$ different fallacies.

• divided verbal and material fallacies

Verbal fallacy

Aristotle's term for a fallacy where the language used is ambiguous or incorrect.

Material fallacy

Aristotle's term for an argument that involves faulty or flawed reasoning.

Who contributed today to fallacies

Richard Whately and Francis Bacon

Ad hominem

A fallacy that attempts to invalidate an opponent’s position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic.

Ex. Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn’t grow up in this town. 

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Red herring

An attempt to shift focus from the debate at hand by introducing an irrelevant point.

Ex. Losing a tooth can be scary, but have you heard about the Tooth Fairy? 

Red herring Fallacy

Straw man

An argument that argues against a hyperbolic, inaccurate version of the opposition rather than their actual argument.

Ex. Erin thinks we need to stop using all plastics, right now, to save the planet from climate change. 

Straw man fallacy

Equivocation

A statement crafted to mislead or confuse readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or interpretations of a word or through unclear phrasing.

Ex. While I have a clear plan for the campus budget that accounts for every dollar spent, my opponent simply wants to throw money at special interest projects. 

Equivocation

Ex. If we make an exception for Bijal’s service dog, then other people will want to bring their dogs. Then everybody will bring their dog, and before you know it, our restaurant will be overrun with dogs, their slobber, their hair, and all the noise they make, and nobody will want to eat here anymore. 

Slippery slope fallacy

Hasty generalization

A statement made after considering just one or a few examples rather than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim.

Ex. I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from Georgio’s, so I must be allergic to something in pizza. 

Hasty generalization

Appeal to authority

A claim where the arguer uses an authority figure’s expertise to support a claim despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.

Ex. If you want to be healthy, you need to stop drinking coffee. I read it on a fitness blog.

Appeal to authority

False dilemma

Also known as a false dichotomy, this claims there are only two options in a given situation, often extreme opposites, while failing to acknowledge other reasonable options.

Ex. If you don’t support my decision, you were never really my friend. 

False dilemma

Bandwagon fallacy

The claim that a certain action is the right thing to do because it is popular.

Ex. Of course it’s fine to wait until the last minute to write your paper. Everybody does it!

Bandwagon Fallacy

Appeal to ignorance

Also known as the burden of proof fallacy, it claims something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false, or vice versa.

Ex. There must be fairies living in our attic because nobody’s ever proven that there aren’t fairies living in our attic.

Appeal to ignorance

Circular argument

An argument that uses the same statement as both the premise and the conclusion, introducing no new information or justification.

Ex. Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I think peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow. 

Circular argument

Sunk cost fallacy

Justifying a decision to continue a specific course of action based on the amount of time or money already spent on it.

Ex. I’m not enjoying this book, but I bought it, so I have to finish reading it. 

Sunk cost fallacy

Appeal to pity

An attempt to sway a reader\'s or listener\'s opinion by provoking them emotionally.

Ex. I know I should have been on time for the interview, but I woke up late and felt really bad about it, then the stress of being late made it hard to concentrate on driving here.

Appeal to pity

Causal fallacy

A fallacy that implies a relationship between two things where one cannot actually be proven.

Ex. When ice cream sales are up, so are shark attacks. Therefore, buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten by a shark. 

Casual fallacy

Appeal to hypocrisy

Also known as a tu quoque fallacy, it is a rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism rather than responding to the claim itself.

Ex. “You don’t have enough experience to be the new leader.” “Neither do you!”

Appeal to hypocrisy

Ex. My dad scolded me for getting a speeding ticket, so I asked him about all the tickets he racked up when he was my age. 

Appeal to hypocrisy

Ex. Aliens don’t exist. If they did, we would have seen one by now. 

Appeal to ignorance

Ex. I want to change my major to English, but I’m so close to finishing my chemistry degree.

Sunk cost fallacy

How to avoid using logical fallacies

Focus on evidence-based reasoning, ensure accurate definitions, and anticipate counterarguments.

• brainstorming

Why do people use logical fallacies?

People may resort to logical fallacies

• to manipulate perspectives (make their opposition look worse)

• oversimplify complex issues

• bolster their arguments

Some individuals might employ them unknowingly

• due to a lack of understanding or critical thinking skills

No true Scotsman fallacy (not apart of 15)

The argument that someone is not "really” a part of a group because they do not adhere to specific behaviors or traits.

Ex. “New Yorkers fold their pizza, so you must not really be from New York if you eat yours with utensils.”

No true Scotsman fallacy

Texas sharpshooter fallacy (not apart of 15)

Cherry-picking data to support a claim rather than drawing a logical conclusion from a broad body of evidence.