BIO 100 BYU Prof Bybee (exam 1)

Biology

The scientific study of life

Science

Systematic method of inquiry

Hypothesis

An educated guess that addresses a question that comes from observation

Prediction

Based on hypothesis

-should be able to be tested

Experiment

Designed to test predictions

-good predictions lead to good experiments

-results of experiments: you either accept, refute, or remain neutral

Sampling Error

-The amount of inaccuracy in estimating some value that is caused by only a portion of a population

-The difference b/w the exact quantity you want to know and the actual estimation from your sample is the sampling error

Characteristics of life

-Growth

-Metabolism

-Homeostasis

Water

-2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen

-solvent

Hydrogen bonds

The weak attraction between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another

Solute

What is being dissolved (salt)

Solvent

What something is being dissolved in (water)

Carbon

-4 bonds at once

-very strong covalent bonds due to electron sharing

-makes macromolecules

Macromolecules

-carbohydrate

-protein

-lipid

-nucleic acid

Carbohydrates

-carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

-major source of cell energy

-give structure to cells

-short term energy

Proteins

-carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

-chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds

Lipids

-mostly carbon and hydrogen

-hydrophobic

-3 types: fats, phosopholipid​s, cholesterol

-energy storage

Nucleic Acids

​-chains of nucleotides (DNA or RNA)

-nucleotide= sugar+phosphate+nitrogenous base

DNA

• double helix:
  - backbone is made of sugars and phosphates
  - rungs are made of nitrogenous bases

-Bonding between bases follows a strict base-pairing rule

A & T

G & C

Prokaryotic cells

-small and simple

-no true nucleus

-ex: bacteria

Eukaryotic cells

-single or multi-celled

-have a true nucleus surrounded by a membrane

-have membrane-bound organelles

-ex: yeast, amoeba, plants, animals

Plasma membrane

• made of phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail)

• fluid mosaic

• Selectively permeable

• Gatekeeper

Nutrients

-chemical building blocks

-energy

Herbivores

eat plants

Carnivores

eat animals

Omnivores

eat both plants and animals

Detritivores

eat dead organic matter

Three main nutrients

carbohydrates, proteins, fats

Macronutrients

-water

-carbs (monosaccharides)

-proteins (amino acids)

-fats (monoglycerides)

Micronutrients

-needed in tiny amounts

-help regulate metabolism

-vitamins and minerals

Vitamins

-vitamin D is the only one body manufactures

Enzymes

-catalyze or reduce energy needed

-speed up reactions

-Proteins

-Specific to its substrate

Passive transport

• no energy

• from high to low concentration

• passive diffusion and facilitated with channel proteins

• “downhill”

Active transport

• requires energy from ATP

• low to high concentration

• makes a concentration gradient

• Active carrier proteins move MORE

• EX: sodium potasium pump

Exocytosis

-releases substances from cell

-vesicles fuse with plasma membrane

Endocytosis

• taking substances into the cell

• “pinching”

Greenhouse effect

-sunlight warms the surface of the earth

-most of the warmth radiates into space

-some is absorbed by gas in the atmosphere making Earth warmer

-more greenhouse gas leads to more absorption which creates higher temperatures

Heat

Total amount of energy in a substance

Temperature

How rapidly molecules are moving

Carbon cycle

-involves living organisms, the atmosphere, bodies of water, and soil

-how carbon goes from one place to another

Negative feedbacks

-Negate change

-higher temperatures produce more clouds, reduces warming and thus energy input

Positive feedbacks

-Enhance change

-melting ice reduces reflectiveness of the Earth and thus temperatures rise

Plasma Membrane A P B

A semipermeable membrane that surrounds cells and acts like a screen or gate around the cell. It is made of phospholipids. It is like a security checkpoint that only lets certain things through.

Nucleus

A structure found in all eukaryotic cells that contains genetic information. It controlls metabolism and gene expression and it is like a database.
- Found in animals and plants

Ribosome A B P

Organelles that make proteins. They are synthesized in the nucleolus and are in the cytoplasm and rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is like a factory.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

it makes lipids. found in animals and plants

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

It produces proteins. Ribosomes are attached. It is like a manufacturing plant.
- Found in animals and plants

Golgi apparatus A P

Receives vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum and transports and packages proteins to places in the cell. It is like the USPS.

Lysosome A P

Organelles spread throughout the cell that digest waste and remove old organelles. This is like a garbage truck.

Peroxisome

Breaks down chains of fatty acids and captures harmful cells. It is like a police officer.

- Found in animals & plants

Vacuole

The catchall storage unit for cells. They can store water, waste, and food. It is like a locker.
- In animals and plants

Mitochondria A P

Organelles that produce ATP which is the main energy source for cells. It is like a coal power plant.

Chloroplast

Organelle found in plants that converts sunlight to energy. It is responsible for photosynthesis. It is like a solar panel.
- in plant cells

Extracellular Matrix

This supports and protects the cell. It is found outside the cell. It is like the front gate of a house.
- found in animals and plants

Cytoskeleton

This is support coming from inside the cell. It is made of fibers running through the cell and is like the frame of a house.
- found in animals and plants

Centrioles

They control cell division (mitosis) and are responsible for moving genetic information. It is like a moving company.
- found in animal cells

Cell Wall

This is the barrier outside the cell that is protective and also provides support. It is like a prison fence.

- found in bacteria and plant cells

ATP

-main energy for the cell

-made through cellular respiration

Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis

-glucose is made into 2 pyruvate

-biproduct of 2 ATP

-NADH goes to ETC

2. Citric Acid Cycle

-takes pyruvate into mitochondira

-biproduct is 2 ATP and CO2

-NADH goes to ETC

3. Electron Transport Chain

-on inner membrane

-electrons from NADH go through membrane proteins and build up a hydrogen concentration between membranes

-hydrogens fly through the ATP synthase which makes it spin

-34 ATP is produced

-leftover hydrogens and electrons bind with oxygen to make water

Cytoplasm

Where glycolysis takes place in cellular respiration

Electron Transport Chain

-Last step in cellular respiration

-on inner membrane

-electrons from NADH go through membrane proteins and build up a hydrogen concentration between membranes

-hydrogens fly through the ATP synthase which makes it spin

Electrons

-go through membrane proteins in the mitochondria and build up hydrogen concentration between the membranes

Glucose

-goes into glycolysis and is broken down into 2 pyruvate

Glycolysis

-first step in cellular respiration

-makes 2 pyruvate

-makes 2 ATP

Hydrogen

-is built up between membranes during the electron transport chain

-they fly through the ATP synthase to make 34 ATP

Citric Acid Cycle

-second step in cellular respiration

-takes pyruvate from glycolysis

-biproducts are 2 ATP and CO2

NADH/NAD+

-electrons from NADH is taken to build up the hydrogen concentration in the electron transport chain

Oxygen

-combines with leftover hydrogen and electrons after the electron transport chain and makes water

Pyruvate

-glycolysis makes this out of glucose

Dark Reaction (Calvin Cycle)

-in stroma

-hydrogen is removed from NADPH

-combined with CO2 to make carbs

-driven by ATP

-CO2 goes in and sugar comes out

Carbohydrates

-product of photosynthesis

Carbon Dioxide

-goes into dark reaction

Chloroplast

-where photosynthesis happens

Light

-goes into the light reaction phase of photosynthesis

Light Reaction

-thylakoids

-light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll

-water is split to give off oxygen and convert NADP+ to NADPH

-electrons from water move along an electron transport chain to make ATP

-onto Dark Reaction

-H20 and light goes in O2 goes out

NADP/NADPH

-gives hydrogen to the dark reaction

Photosynthesis

-Carbon dioxide is combined with water, using light energy to produce glucose and oxygen

-CO2+light+H20=glucose+O2

Stroma

-where dark reactions occur

Thylakoid

-where light reactions happen

Evolution

-transition fossils

-bio diversity

Climate change

-rate of change

Hypotonic

More water inside cell

Hypertonic

More water outside cell

Isotonic

Equal amounts of water

Which direction does water flow?

from hypotonic to hypertonic