Chapter 7: Cultural Identity Development

What is cultural identity development?

Cultural identity development is a major task in human development where individuals establish a sense of who they are, often shaped by their physical appearance, personal interests, career plans, religious beliefs, and gender roles.

Why do cultural minority groups face unique challenges in identity development?

Cultural minority groups face unique challenges in identity development because they must navigate and resolve conflicts related to traits such as race, gender, sexual orientation, or physical ability, which may lead to negative reactions from society and impact their sense of self.

What social challenges must individuals from minority groups often confront in identity development?

Individuals from minority groups often must come to terms with and deal with prejudice, discrimination, marginalization, and oppression as a result of their group membership.

What are some forms of discrimination related to specific identities?

Forms of discrimination include sexism (against women), racism (against people of color), heterosexism (against gays and lesbians), as well as ableism, classism, ageism, and anti-semitism, reflecting a continuous struggle when parts of one's identity are not accepted.

What is an example of subtle discrimination experienced while shopping?

Subtle discrimination can occur when two adolescents shop for clothes and one is ignored or followed by a salesperson, leading them to realize they are being watched due to assumptions about their likelihood to steal, often based on race, appearance, or group identity.

According to Beverly Tatum, why do children of different races interact more when they are younger?

According to Beverly Tatum, younger children often make friends across racial lines because they have not yet had negative experiences related to their race and are not yet perceived as a threat.

What shift occurs as children get older, according to Beverly Tatum?

As children get older, they become more aware of racial dynamics and may begin to experience or recognize racism, leading to more racially segregated social groups, such as "all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria."

According to Beverly Tatum, how are self-perceptions shaped?

Tatum explains that our self-perceptions are shaped by the messages we receive from those around us, and during adolescence, the racial content of these messages tends to intensify.

How do people often respond to racially charged experiences, according to Tatum?

People may respond by minimizing or denying the experience ("I'm sure they didn't mean it like that") or by offering support ("I know just how you feel"), which can influence whether individuals distance themselves from one group or feel connected to another.

Why is validation important in identity development?

Validation is important because it helps individuals feel understood and supported, especially when dealing with the impact of racial or identity-based experiences.

At what age do complicated racial perceptions begin to affect African American boys, and how are they perceived?

Starting around age 10, African American boys are more likely to be perceived as less innocent and older than their peers by the general public and police officers (Goff et al., 2014).

What societal challenges do African American boys face as a result of these perceptions?

They face higher incarceration rates and are 21 times more likely to be shot and killed by police than European American boys (Gabrielson et al., 2014), requiring them to cope with society's biased reactions and treatment.

What does the old Asian saying about individuality reveal about human identity?

The saying—people are like no other individuals, like some individuals, and like all other individuals—highlights the complexity and layered nature of human identity and development, emphasizing uniqueness, shared traits, and universal human experiences.

What model of personal identity did Sue (2001) propose?

Sue (2001) proposed a model of personal identity illustrated as three concentric circles representing the unique individual aspects, the group-level aspects (shared with certain social groups), and the universal aspects of being human.

What does the individual level of Sue's (2001) identity model emphasize?

The individual level emphasizes that all people are, in some respects, like no other individuals—each person is unique in their genetic makeup, personality, and non-shared personal experiences, which set them apart from all others and form a key part of their identity.

What does the group level of Sue's (2001) identity model emphasize?

The group level emphasizes that individuals are, in some respects, like some others—sharing identity traits based on group memberships such as gender, race, culture, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, religion, SES, marital status, and geographic location.

What does the universal level of Sue's (2001) identity model emphasize?

The universal level emphasizes that all individuals are, in some respects, like all other individuals—sharing traits common to all humans such as biological similarities, life experiences (e.g., birth, death, love, fear), and universal practices like language.

Which level of personal identity development is the focus of this chapter, and why?

This chapter focuses on the group level of identity development because our group memberships significantly shape how we see ourselves, others in our group, and those outside of it, especially as some groups are valued more than others in society (e.g., men vs. women, Christian vs. Muslim, able-bodied vs. disabled, White vs. Black).

How does society influence group identity development?

Society's reactions to the groups we belong to play a major role in shaping our group identity, as social messages and treatment can affirm, challenge, or distort how we see ourselves within those groups.

Why is this chapter only an introduction to cultural identity development?

This chapter serves as an introduction because the cultural identity development process is vast and complex, with a large body of research that cannot be fully covered in a single chapter.

Where did research on cultural identity development begin?

Research on cultural identity development began with African Americans and can be traced back to a landmark experiment conducted by Kenneth and Mamie Clark.

What was the significance of Kenneth and Mamie Clark's experiment?

Kenneth and Mamie Clark's "doll test" revealed how early racial bias and negative self-perception developed in African American children, providing key evidence in the Brown v. Board of Education case and sparking broader research on cultural identity.

What did Kenneth and Mamie Clark's 1939 doll study involve?

The Clarks' study involved African American children being shown Black and White dolls and asked which doll was the prettiest, smartest, and dirtiest; many children attributed positive traits to the White dolls and negative traits to the Black dolls.

What did the results of the Clark doll study reveal?

The results revealed internalized racism and the damaging effects of segregation on African American children's self-esteem and cultural identity.

What did the Clarks conclude from their doll experiments with Black children?

They concluded that Black children had low self-esteem and a negative self-image.

What did the Clarks attribute the low self-esteem and negative self-image of Black children to?

They attributed it to racism, oppression, and discrimination experienced by Black children.

What broader impact did the Clarks' research have?

It had a huge influence on psychology and civil rights, and was used as key evidence in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case.

How was the Clarks' research used in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case?

It was used to support the argument that segregated schools were unconstitutional because they harmed the self-image and development of Black children.

What does the Nigrescence model outline?

It outlines the stages African Americans go through from self-hatred to self-acceptance.

What is the Pre-encounter stage in the Nigrescence model?

It is the stage where an individual accepts the dominant (usually White) cultural norms and devalues their own Black identity.

How do individuals typically think and act in the Pre-encounter stage?

They tend to think and act in ways that devalue their Blackness and idealize Whiteness.

What societal influence is internalized during the Pre-encounter stage?

Individuals internalize society's attitudes about White supremacy and anti-Blackness.

What is the Encounter stage in the Nigrescence model?

It is the stage where an individual is confronted with the realities of racism or cultural devaluation, prompting a reassessment of their views on race.

What typically triggers the Encounter stage?

A significant event that exposes the harsh realities of racism and challenges previously held beliefs about race.

What is an example of an event that could trigger the Encounter stage?

The death of Martin Luther King Jr. caused many to reevaluate their attitudes about race.

What is the Immersion/Emersion stage in the Nigrescence model?

It is the stage where an individual fully immerses themselves in Black culture and rejects the dominant (usually White) culture.

How do individuals typically behave during the Immersion/Emersion stage?

They idealize Blackness, fully engage with Black culture, and reject anything that is not Black.

Why do individuals eventually move out of the Immersion/Emersion stage?

Because they realize that they cannot meet all of their needs in a society still dominated by the majority group.

What is the Internalization stage in the Nigrescence model?

It is the stage where an individual feels secure and positive about their Black identity, allowing them to accept other cultures as well.

How do individuals typically feel during the Internalization stage?

They feel more confident, positive, and secure in their Black identity.

What becomes important during the Internalization stage?

Acceptance of other cultures and people becomes very important at this stage.

How is cultural identity development typically discussed?

It is typically discussed as a minority phenomenon, focusing on how minority groups navigate negative attitudes and treatment from the dominant culture.

What challenges do members of minority groups face in cultural identity development?

They struggle with internalizing negative societal attitudes and discrimination from the dominant culture.

Do members of the dominant group also face cultural identity questions?

Yes, members of the dominant group can also struggle with cultural identity, especially when confronted with issues of privilege, power, and systemic inequality.

According to Janet Helms, what is required for the development of a White identity?

It requires the abandonment of racist ideas and the development of a self-definition as nonracist.

How does Janet Helms describe the structure of White identity development?

She outlines 6 statuses to reflect that individuals may show attitudes and behaviors from multiple stages simultaneously.

What does Janet Helms say about the nature of identity development?

Identity development is a dynamic, ongoing process rather than a fixed condition that is achieved or assigned.

What is the Contact status in Janet Helms' White Identity Development model?

It is the status where White individuals are largely unaware of racism and their own racial privilege.

How do people in the Contact status typically perceive race?

They may claim to be color-blind and believe that racial and cultural differences do not matter.

What contradictory beliefs are often held during the Contact status?

They may simultaneously believe in the superiority of White culture and deny the significance of racial differences.

What is the "Disintegration" status in White racial identity development?

The Disintegration status occurs when White individuals have enough contact with people of color that their previously naïve beliefs about racism are disrupted. This experience introduces information that conflicts with their earlier views, leading to confusion or guilt as they begin to recognize the realities of systemic racism.

What is an example of the Disintegration status in action?

An example is when a White person works with a Latinx or African American colleague on a project and witnesses their competence and intelligence, which challenges the stereotype that people of color are unintelligent or lazy.

What is the "Reintegration" status in White racial identity development?

The Reintegration status is when White individuals retreat back into predominantly White communities to resolve the discomfort caused by the previous stage. They may begin to support White supremacy, either actively or passively, as a defense mechanism against the guilt or confusion they've experienced.

What is the "Pseudoindependence" status in White racial identity development?

The Pseudoindependence status occurs when White individuals start recognizing the existence of racism but still believe the responsibility for change lies with people of color. They may try to "help" minorities but do so by imposing White/European American norms and standards.

What is the "Immersion/Emersion" status in White racial identity development?

The Immersion/Emersion status is when White individuals begin developing a positive White identity by focusing on changing the attitudes and behaviors of other White people rather than trying to "fix" people of color. This stage involves rejecting personal racist beliefs and committing to challenging racism in their communities.

What is the "Autonomy" status in White racial identity development?

The Autonomy status is when White individuals feel secure in their White identity, recognize their privilege, and understand how racism is interconnected with other forms of oppression. They actively work as allies to combat all types of injustice. Example: Harry.

What are the key assumptions of Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

Ruiz's model is based on four assumptions: (1) Marginality is highly correlated with maladjustment; (2) Forced assimilation leads to negative, destructive experiences; (3) Pride in one's identity is positively linked to mental health; and (4) Pride in ethnic identity increases freedom of choice during the acculturation process.

What is the "Causal" stage in Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

The Causal stage is an emotional phase where the individual internalizes negative stereotypes about Latinx identity, leading to feelings of humiliation and trauma. As a result, the person may reject, deny, or ignore their Latinx heritage and may not identify with Latinx culture at all.

What is the "Cognitive" stage in Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

The Cognitive stage involves internalized beliefs that being Latinx is inherently linked to poverty and prejudice. Individuals may believe that the only way to escape these conditions and achieve success is by assimilating into the dominant culture. These beliefs stem from negative and distorted messages internalized during the previous (Causal) stage.

What is the "Consequence" stage in Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

The Consequence stage is marked by a sense of alienation from the Latinx community due to internalized beliefs that negative traits are associated with being Latinx. This leads individuals to reject their Latinx or Chicano heritage and experience a fragmented sense of ethnic identity.

What is the "Working Through" stage in Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

The Working Through stage is when individuals experience distress from their disconnection with the Latinx community and begin actively working to integrate their Latinx identity into their overall self-concept. It involves struggling with internal ethnic conflict and leads to a more integrated, healthier identity and reconnection with the community.

What is the "Successful Resolution" stage in Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

The Successful Resolution stage is the final phase in which an individual fully integrates their Latinx identity into their overall self-concept. They embrace the positive aspects of being Latinx, experience self-acceptance, and believe their ethnic identity is a source of strength and can contribute to success.

What are some key characteristics and limitations of Ruiz's model of ethnic identity development?

Ruiz's model is a stage-based, pan-ethnic framework developed to describe Latinx identity development under a shared umbrella. However, it may not fully represent the diverse experiences of all Latinx individuals due to variations in country of origin, socioeconomic status (SES), acculturation, and more. Ferdman and Gallegos' model addresses these complexities by considering multiple Latinx subgroups and intersectional factors.

What is the "Latino-Integrated" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals understand societal dynamics in terms of race and identify with the larger Latino community as a whole.

What is the "Latino-Identified" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals believe race is fluid and that society operates on a dualistic racial framework; they embrace a broad, pan-Latino identity.

What is the "Subgroup-Identified" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals strongly identify with a specific subgroup within the Latino culture (e.g., Puerto Rican, Dominican) and may view other subgroups as less significant.

What is the "Latino as Other" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals feel disconnected from all Latino subgroups, often due to uncertainty or lack of clarity about their cultural heritage.

What is the "Undifferentiated/Denial" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals adopt a color-blind perspective, denying the significance of race and claiming it does not impact identity.

What is the "White-Identified" orientation in Ferdman and Gallegos' model?

Individuals align themselves with White culture and adopt the views, values, and beliefs of the dominant White society.

Why is there no single racial identity development model for Asian, Pilipino, and Pacific Islander Americans?

Due to the vast heterogeneity within these populations—across national origins, cultures, languages, and immigration experiences—no single model can fully capture their identity development. While general racial identity models can offer some insight, more culturally specific models are still needed.

What does the story of Michelle, born in Hong Kong, illustrate about identity development in Asian American populations?

Michelle's story reflects the complex and individualized nature of identity development for Asian Americans, shaped by factors like immigration history, cultural background, and personal experiences, highlighting the limitations of applying a one-size-fits-all model.

What are some racial identity development models created for specific Asian American subgroups?

Some subgroup-specific models include the Chinese American model (Sue & Sue, 1971), Japanese American model (Kitano, 1982), Asian American college student model (Suinn, Ahuna & Khoo, 1992), and Pilipino American model (Nadal, 2004).

What is a key limitation of subgroup-specific racial identity development models for Asian Americans?

While these models contribute significantly to understanding identity development, they often fail to account for intragroup differences within the broader Asian American and Pacific Islander communities.

What is the "Ethnic Awareness" stage in Nadal's Pilipino American identity development model?

This stage involves neutral or positive feelings toward all ethnic groups, including one's own, with limited exposure to racism or prejudice.

What is the "Assimilation to Dominant Culture" stage in Nadal's model?

In this stage, individuals view White Americans positively while holding negative attitudes toward their own and other ethnic groups.

What is the "Social Political Awakening" stage in Nadal's model?

Individuals develop negative views toward European Americans and begin to feel positively toward other communities of color due to increased sociopolitical awareness.

What is the "Pan Ethnic Asian American Consciousness" stage in Nadal's model?

Individuals begin to identify with the broader Asian American community, showing solidarity and preference toward other Asian ethnic groups.

What is the "Ethnocentric Realization" stage in Nadal's model?

This stage involves empowerment through a strong connection to one's own ethnic group and other communities of color.

What is the "Introspection" stage in Nadal's model?

Individuals come to accept their identity as Asian American while maintaining a distinct sense of ethnic identity, leading to a balanced and self-aware perspective.

Why is it difficult to develop a single identity development model for American Indians?

The diversity of histories, cultures, and tribal affiliations among American Indian communities makes it challenging to create a one-size-fits-all model for identity development.

What is a key distinction in American Indian identity development compared to other groups?

Unlike other racial or ethnic identities, American Indian identity is primarily political, not racial. It is legally defined through sovereign status and treaties with the U.S. federal government, rather than just through census or employment categories.

Why might some American Indians resist being categorized as "people of color"?

While American Indians acknowledge shared experiences of oppression with other marginalized groups, the term "people of color" can obscure their unique political and sovereign status as Indigenous nations.

What are some common elements of identity across different American Indian tribes despite their diversity?

Despite vast tribal diversity, commonalities include: (1) identity being rooted more in political sovereignty than racial categorization, and (2) a shared historical awareness of near-genocide and a deep, spiritual connection to the land.

What did the Supreme Court rule in 1967 regarding antimiscegenation laws?

In 1967, the Supreme Court ruled that antimiscegenation laws, which prohibited interracial marriage, were unconstitutional. At the time, 16 states still had such laws in place.

How has the rate of interracial/interethnic marriages changed since the 1967 Supreme Court decision?

The rate of interracial/interethnic marriages has steadily increased: 3.2% in 1980, 8.4% in 2010, and 10% in 2015.

When was the first U.S. Census that allowed individuals to select more than one race?

The 2000 Census was the first to allow individuals to mark more than one race, reflecting increasing multiracial identities in the U.S.

How did the number of multiracial individuals change by 2010?

By 2010, approximately 9 million people identified as multiracial, with a significant rise in multiracial children reported between 2000 and 2010.

What role does increased multiracial identification play in the acceptance of interracial marriage?

The rise in multiracial identification reflects and likely contributes to growing societal acceptance of interracial marriage, as visibility and normalization of multiracial families and individuals challenge traditional racial boundaries.

How has public approval of interracial marriage changed over time?

Public approval of interracial marriage rose dramatically from 4.0% in 1959 to 87% in 2013, reflecting a significant shift in societal attitudes.

Why is identity development more complex for multiracial individuals?

Multiracial individuals often navigate a more complex identity process as they reconcile multiple racial backgrounds, seek belonging, and may face "pigeonholing"—being forced into one category. They can experience discrimination or exclusion from both racial groups, often not being seen as a full member of either.

What is the "Personal Identity" stage in multiracial identity development?

The Personal Identity stage is when a child forms their sense of self based on personal traits like self-esteem, rather than racial or ethnic background.

What is the "Choice of Group Categorization" stage in multiracial identity development?

This stage occurs when a child feels pressure—often from family, peers, or society—to choose one racial or ethnic group as the basis for their identity. Influences can include physical appearance and societal expectations.

What is the "Enmeshment/Denial" stage in Poston's Biracial Identity Development Model?

This stage involves feelings of guilt or confusion when a child chooses one racial or ethnic identity, perceiving it as a rejection of the other parent's background.

What is the "Appreciation" stage in Poston's Biracial Identity Development Model?

In this stage, the individual begins to develop a broader understanding and appreciation for the racial or ethnic identity they did not initially embrace.

What is the "Integration" stage in Poston's Biracial Identity Development Model?

This final stage is when the individual successfully integrates and embraces both racial or ethnic identities, recognizing the strengths and benefits of their multiracial background.

What does Maria Root propose as possible resolutions for biracial identity development?

Maria Root suggests that while integrating and appreciating both racial backgrounds is a healthy resolution, biracial individuals may resolve their identity in multiple valid ways. These include: (1) accepting the identity society assigns, (2) identifying with both racial groups, (3) identifying with a single racial group, (4) identifying with a new mixed-race group, or (5) identifying with the race perceived to have higher social status.

How does Root's view differ from Poston's model?

Root criticizes Poston's model for assuming a universal, linear path for biracial individuals. Instead, she emphasizes that there are multiple healthy resolutions and that identity development is fluid and personal.

What are the different identities represented by the acronym LGBTTQQIAAP?

LGBTTQQIAAP stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Transsexual, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, Asexual/Aromantic, Agender, and Pansexual—representing a broad spectrum of sexual orientations and gender identities.

What is the "Identity Confusion" stage in GLB identity development?

This stage involves the initial questioning of one's sexual identity. The individual starts noticing same-sex attractions or behaviors that differ from societal expectations, which can lead to withdrawal from family and peers due to confusion or fear.

What is the "Identity Comparison" stage in GLB identity development?

In this stage, the individual begins to acknowledge their same-sex attractions and compares themselves to societal norms. The recognition of incongruence—such as a girl being attracted to another girl while peers talk about boys—can deepen self-questioning.