BILD 2 MIDTERM #1

Tissue

Cells of the same type

Organs

Tissues producing a joint function (specific tissues creates a specific organ ex. Lungs, heart, etc.)

Organ system

Groups of organs that somehow work together

Networking and Communication between organs

Brain: control center

Advantages of Multicellular Life

1. Has specialized functions causing an increase in efficient

2. Controlled shape which helps adapt to environment (humans able to walk on two feet)

3. Large size = better defense

4. Controlled internal environment (temp and oxygen in blood)

5. Can live on land

Disadvantages of Multicellular Life

1. Surface volume ratio is low (as size increases, surface volume ratio is lower) with a high surface volume ratio you need specialized systems to assess nutrients

2. Transport issues so we use specialized organs to assess nutrients

3. Support = move larger body/weight

Epithelial Tissue (One of the main categories of animal tissue)

Tightly packed sheets of cells (skin) protective barrier from invading microorganisms which helps prevent fluid loss (water)

Simple Epithelium

Single layer of cells

Stratified epithelium

Multiple layers of cells

Cell Shapes

Cuboidal : dice like

Columnar : column like

Squamous: flat like floor tiles

Connective Tissue

Bind/support organs in body

Can be connective protein fibers, supporting cells, and fibroblasts

Adipose tissue

Loose connective tissues stores fat, insulated body, and storage

Cartilage

Strong, but flexible connective fibers which is a rubber ground substance

Bone

Collagen + calcium-phosphate (hardens bones)

Muscle tissues

66% of bulk movement

1. Skeletal/striated (voluntary)

2. Cardiac (heart, involuntary, interconnected)

3. Smooth (visceral, involuntary, sustained = doesn’t lose energy from use without thinking & slower)

Nervous Tissue

Gives output in voluntary and involuntary movements

Receives info: visual input, auditory input

Memory

Data processing = processing info

Internal homeostasis

Balance of nutrients, wastes, O2, and temperature

Why is pumped transport better than diffusion?

Transport controls rate of supply according to heartbeat and diffusion is slow

Where does the circulatory system start?

The right chamber of the heart/right ventricle where the blood is deoxygenated (blue).

What is a ventricle?

The part of the heart where it pumps blood.

After the ventricle pumps the blood, where does it go next?

Blood continues to flow from the ventricle into the pulmonary artery.

Why is it called the pulmonary artery?

B/c it is going to the lungs to get oxygenated (red), pulmonary = lungs.

Before the blood enters the lungs, where does it flow after the pulmonary artery?

The capillaries of the left and right lung where the blood becomes oxygenated (blue to red)

After the capillaries make oxygenated blood by going through the lungs, where does the blood flow?

Flows in the pulmonary veins.

Why is it called the pulmonary veins?

B/c it is blood returning from the lungs to the heart.

After the pulmonary veins, where does the blood flow?

Flows into the left atrium.

What are atriums?

The place where blood is returned (collected) to after being oxygenated.

After the blood is returned oxygenated, where does the flow continue?

The left atrium where they pump the blood throughout the body.

What is the artery called that pumps the blood after reaching the left atrium?

The Aorta

Where is the oxygenated blood from the Aorta taken to?

The capillaries of the head and forelimbs, and the capillaries of the hind limbs and abdominal limbs.

After the blood travels through the capillaries of the head and forelimbs, and the capillaries of the abdominal organs and hind limb, where does the blood flow?

Flows into the anterior vena cava for the head and forelimbs and the posterior vena cava for the hind limb and abdominal organs which leaves the blood deoxygenated.

What is the vena cava?

Large vein that transports deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.

Why is the vena cava consider a vein?

B/c it is bringing blood back to the heart.

After the blood travels through the vena cava, where does it go?

The deoxygenated blood goes to the right atrium.

What is the purpose of the atriums?

To collect blood.

After arriving to the right atrium, what happens to the deoxygenated blood?

It goes to the right ventricle and restarts the whole circulatory system.

What is the purpose of the ventricle?

To pump blood out of heart.

What is the purpose of the arteries?

To carry blood away from the heart.

What is the purpose of the veins?

To carry blood back to the atrium (collects) of the heart.

What is the cause of blue baby: Cyanosis?

The lack of oxygenated blood in the baby due to a heart of lung defect.

What are the sequence of events of the heart cycle?

1. Right atrium is filled with deoxygenated blood from vena cava veins

2. Then the atrium contracts causing the blood to flow from the atrium to the ventricle through the atrioventricular valve

3. Once blood is filled in the ventricle, the atrioventricular valve closes to prevent back flow of blood.

4. Then the semilunar valve opens once the ventricle contracts blood causing the flow of blood from the ventricle to the pulmonary artery.

5. Once the blood flows to the pulmonary artery, the semilunar valve closes to prevent back flow and then the blood travels to the capillaries of the lungs to get the blood oxygenated.

What is the systole state?

The blood contracts in the atria and the ventricles.

Which contraction is the fastest and which is the slowest in the systole state?

The ventricle contraction is slower with 0.3 seconds and the atria contacts with a speed of 0.1 seconds which is faster than the ventricle contraction.

What is the Diastole state?

The state where the atria and the ventricles relax, and fill with returning blood.

How long is the two cycles combined?

0.8 seconds

What is the pressure of the two cycles combined?

120/70 mmHg

What is required for the heart to contract?

A pacemaker/sinoatrial node located in the top right atrium which send electric signals to the heart to contract.

Does the heart need brain signals to contract?

No

How many times does the neuromuscular cells beat per a min?

72-80 beats per a min.

What is the time interval for one beat for the neuromuscular cells?

1 beat per 0.8 seconds

What happens when the pacemaker beats?

Both atria contracts (systole)

What are gap junctions?

Proteins that transport electrical signals like a wave allowing the atria to contract due to the pacemaker.

What are the steps of the control heartbeat?

1. Pacemaker generates wave of signals to contract

2. Signals delay at AV node (.1 sec delay)

3. Signals pass to heart Apex

4. Signals spread throughout ventricles through purkinje fibers causing contraction of ventricles

Do smaller animals have a faster or slower heart rate?

Faster b/c they have a larger surface to volume ratio so they need to increase there heart and metabolic rate to maintain temperature.

What is blood pressure?

Hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the walls of a vessel.

What is hydrostatic pressure?

Pressure that moves fluids through a pipe.

When is there high pressure occurring?

In the systole state where the the ventricles and atria are contracting.

When is low pressure occurring?

In the diastole state when the ventricles and atria are relaxing.

What determines blood pressure?

The strength of the contraction, the diameter of the arteries which can be effected by cholesterol (decreases passageway) and stress (makes muscles constrict), and high salt concentration.

What does it mean to have high salt concentration?

More salt in blood stream absorb water which increases the volume of the salt causing less room in passageway which creates more pressure on blood vessel.

How does speed relate to blood pressure?

They are proportional (one goes up the other goes up and vice versa)

What is interstitial fluid?

salty fluid that lies in cells

What is capillary exchange?

Transfer from blood to interstitial fluid

What is a capillary wall?

Thin endothelium

What are the components of blood?

Volume, Plasma, blood cells, and cholestrol.

What is plasma made out of?

90% water, 3% electrolytes which are similar to interstitial fluid that are important for nerve functions, 7% proteins.

What are the proteins in plasma and what are they used for?

Immunoglobulins (antibodies), Fibrinogens (clotting factors), Albumin (pH balance, osmotic pull)

What blood cells are included in the components of blood?

Red blood cells which transport O2 and CO2 and white blood cells which fights off infection, produce antibodies.

What is thrombus?

Clot of platelets in blood artery.

What can high amounts of cholesterols do?

Create atherosclerosis which is built up plaques of lipids on inner walls of arteries causing hypertension and creating high blood pressure.

What is plaque made up of?

Fat, cholesterol, immune cells, calcium, and other substances found in the blood.

What is cholestrol helpful for?

Repair the lining of the arteries if damaged.

What is arteriosclerosis?

Harden plaque which takes up space causing the diameter of the blood vessel to decrease, making blood clot trapped more easily, and causing higher blood pressure.

What does cholesterol form?

Plaque

What do low density lipoproteins do?

Deposit cholesterol in plaques (protein bind cholesterol and deposit to artery injury)

What do high density lipoproteins do?

Reduce deposition of cholesterol (removes cholesterol and gibe to liver)

Where do LDL (low density lipoproteins) come from?

Liver

Where do LDL proteins transport cholesterol?

Cells and tissues that need cholesterol.

Where are HDL proteins located?

Body tissues and artery lining.

Where do HDL proteins transport cholesterol?

Liver

Why can LDLs cause artherosclerosis?

B/c they can deposit cholesterol in the artery lining.

What happens to O2 and CO2 in gas exchange?

O2 goes into blood while CO2 goes into the atmosphere

How do multicellular animals take up O2?

Respiratory surfaces which one thin (squamous) cell layer, moist epithelium solubilizes O2, and ventilation increases contact to air.

What is the structure of the lungs?

Branched lining with large surface area.

Where does air enter?

The trachea (windpipe)

What moves dust/contamiants out of lungs?

Mucus and cilia on epithelium

What do bronchioles terminate in?

Small air sacs which are the alveolus

What does atmospheric pressure equal to?

760 mmHg

How do you get the partial pressure of a gas?

Multiply 760 mm Hg by the percentage of gas.

How does gas diffuse?

High pressure to low pressure.

How does O2 diffuse?

From alveolus to capillary.

How does CO2 diffuse?

From capillary to alvelous.

In systemic capillaries, how does O2 diffuse?

Out of blood

In systemic capillaries, how does CO2 diffuse?

Into blood

As countercurrent exchange occurs, what happens to O2 and water?

As the two fluids pass each other, blood absorbs more oxygen from water.

What has low solubility in water?

O2

What does it mean O2 vehicle needed in blood?

It must have high affinity for O2 in lungs and must release O2 in tissues.

Where do hemoglobin carry oxygen?

In red blood cell.

For O2 binding, as partial pressure of oxygen increases what happens to O2 saturation of hemoglobin?

Saturation increases (the amount of O2 that can be unloaded during metabolism/increase of the amount of O2 that the hemoglobin can bind to)

What happens as O2 is released from hemoglobin?

CO2 concentration increases so pH level decreases meaning more acidic.