AP Psychology Unit 1

module 1-8

empiricism

the view that know- ledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function -- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

freudian psychology

emphasized the ways our un- conscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior

psychoanalytic/psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatrists

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

confounding variables

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

variable

anything that can vary

ecological validity

measures how generalizable experimental findings are to the real world, such as situations or settings typical of everyday life

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

quasi experiments

a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debrief

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

basic research

* biological psychology
* developmental psychology
* cognitive psychology
* educational psychology
* personality psychology
* social psychology

applied research

* industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
* human factors psychology
* counseling psychology
* clinical psychology

Confucius

stressed the power of ideas and of an educated mind

Hebrew Scholars

linked mind and emotion to the body

Socrates and Plato

concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies and that knowledge is innate

aristotle

said knowledge is not pre-existing and that it instead grows from experiences stored in our memories

descartes

* agreed with socrates & plato
* proposed that nerve pathways allowed for reflexes
* dissected animals and concluded that the fluid in the brain’s cavities contained “animal spirits.” these flowed from brain through nerves to the muscles, provoking movement which then formed memories

bacon

* founder of modern science & empiricism
* foresaw research findings on how we perceive order in random events and how we truly believe when we see events that conform beliefs

locke

* helped form modern empiricism with bacon
* said that our mind and behaviors are shaped by experiences

wundt

* conducted first psychological lab in germany
* tested the reaction time of people hearing a ball hit a platform and them pressing a button
* seeked to measure “atoms of the mind”

titchener

* student of wundt & together introduced structuralism
* aimed to discover the structural elements of mind and engaged people in self introspection

con of introspection

* required smart, verbal people
* proved to be somewhat unreliable, and results varied from person to person and experience to experience
* so then as ____ decreased, so did structuralism

james

* examined how our minds evolved certain functions to form thoughts and feelings
* supporter of functionalism
* “Why do noses smell and brain think?”
* greatest legacy: admitted Calkins into his graduate seminar (all male) → tutored her alone cause everyone else dropped out → Calkins outscored all male students but Harvard refused to give her degree
* wrote *principles of psychology*

Calkins

became first female president of the APA and distinguished memory researcher

Washburn

first female psychologist to earn Ph.D., featured in Wundt’s journal, barred from joining the organization of experimental psychologists

Freud

* focused on how memories are stored in unconscious and how they affect the conscious mind and behavior
* founder of psychoanalysis (talk therapy) and his controversial ideas have influenced humanity’s self understanding

the science of mental life

until 1920s, psychology was defined as “________”

skinner

* behaviorist
* studied how consequences shape behavior (operant conditioning)
* worked with Watson to dismiss introspection/structuralism and promoted behaviorism instead

watson

* demonstrated conditioned responses
* worked with Skinner to dismiss introspection/structuralism and promoted behaviorism instead

freudian psychology

how past experiences affect our unconscious behaviors, mental processes, and emotional responses (psychoanalytic/psychodynamic)

rogers and maslow

* found freudian psychology and behaviorism too limiting, finding humanistic psychology
* instead of the effect of past events, studied how we can reach our greatest potential and become our greatest selves (emphasized self-love & need for acceptance)

cognitive revolution

* rebellion of a second group of psychologists during the 1960s
* back to thinking of mental processes → how our mind stores information and the way we remember information affects our behavior and mental processes

cognitive neuroscience

* enriched our understanding of the brain activity underlying mental activity, and gave us new ways to understand and treat ourselves

behavior

anything an organism does (talking, blinking, etc)

* observable and recordable

mental process

what goes on internally that we infer from behavior (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, etc)

nature vs nurture

* debate over whether genes or experiences are responsible for the development of psychological traits
* most psychologists today agree that a mixture of both are responsible for traits
* locke: “tabula rasa” (blank state; ____)
* descartes: some ideas are innate

charles darwin

proposed the idea of natural selection, arguing that it shapes behavior and bodes

natural selection

traits that are most helpful for an organism’s survival and reproduction will be passed onto the future generations

levels of analysis

* critical thinking
* different approaches that come together to form the bigger picture of why something is happening

science of behavior and mental processes

what is modern psychology defined as?

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral approach

How we learn observable responses

biological approach

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how genes combine with environment to influence individual differences

cognitive approach

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

evolutionary approach

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

humanistic approach

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

psychodynamic approach

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

social-cultural approach

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Dix and Pinel

worked to create safer and more humane environments and treatments of those with psychological disorders

seligman

* to balance historic psychology’s focus on human problems, ____ and others have called for more research on human strengths and human flourishing

basic researach subfields

* cognitive psychologists
* developmental psychologists
* experimental psychologists
* psychometric/quantitative psychologists
* social psychologists

applied research subfields

* forensic psychologists
* health psychologists
* I/O psychologists
* neuro psychologists
* rehabilitation psychologists
* school psychologists
* sports psychologists

helping professions

* clinical psychologists
* community psychologists
* counseling psychologists

cognitive psychologists

experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems

developmental psychologists

studying our changing abilities from womb to tomb

experimental psychologists

study various behavioral processes in humans and animals, focusing on areas like motivation, learning, thought, attention, memory, perception, and language. They typically identify with a specific subfield, like cognitive psychology. Experimental research methods are used in various subfields, including academics, research institutions, zoos, businesses, and government agencies.

psychometric/quantitative psychologists

study psychological knowledge acquisition methods, update tests, and collaborate with researchers. They need training in research methods, statistics, and computer technology. They work in various settings, such as universities, testing companies, private research firms, or government agencies.

social psychologists

exploring how we view and affect one another

forensic psychologists

use psychological principles to address legal issues, research the law-psychology interface, create mental health policies, assist law enforcement, and provide assessment services. They may work in various settings, including universities, law schools, and correctional institutions. Some also hold law degrees.

health psychologists

are researchers and practitioners focused on psychology's role in promoting health and preventing disease. They help individuals lead healthier lives by designing interventions for smoking cessation, weight loss, sleep improvement, pain management, and treating psychosocial issues. They also work in public service to improve government policies and healthcare systems.

I/O psychologists

study people's relationships with their work environments, focusing on organizational structure, consumer behavior, and personnel selection. They may work in various sectors, including business, industry, government, or as consultants

neuropsychologists

study the connection between neurological processes and behavior, diagnosing and treating disorders like Alzheimer's, stroke, autism, ADHD, and other psychiatric conditions. They work in hospitals, psychiatric units, and academic settings, conducting research and teaching.

rehabilitation psychologists

work with individuals who have lost optimal functioning after accidents, illnesses, or other events, typically in medical institutions, schools, vocational agencies, or private practices.

school psychologists

assess and intervene children in educational settings, diagnosing and treating cognitive, social, and emotional problems. They collaborate with teachers, parents, and administrators to improve student learning in various settings.

sport psychologists

study psychological factors influencing sports participation, coach education, athlete preparation, research, and teaching. They can work with individuals with psychological problems like anxiety or substance abuse, and may work in teams, organizations, or private settings.

clinical psychologists

promote psychological health in individuals, groups, and organizations, focusing on specific disorders or a range of disorders. They engage in research, teaching, and consultation, and hold workshops and lectures. To become a clinical psychologist, one must earn a doctorate from a program and obtain a license in all U.S. states.